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Lighthouse of Alexandria

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Icepinner/LOAtodo/sandbox
Drawing by archaeologist Hermann Thiersch (1909)
Map
LocationPharos, Alexandria, Egypt
Coordinates31°12′53″N 29°53′10″E / 31.2148°N 29.886°E / 31.2148; 29.886
Constructedbetween 284 and 246 BC
FoundationStone
ConstructionMasonry
Height103 to 118 m (338 to 387 ft)
ShapeSquare (below), octagonal (middle) and cylindrical (top)
Light
Deactivated1303
Range47 km (29 mi)

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of Alexandria,[a] was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (280–247 BCE). It has been estimated to have been at least 100 metres (330 ft) in overall height. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, for many centuries it was one of the world's tallest man-made structures.

Prior to the construction of the lighthouse, navigation to Alexandria was dangerous due to natural obstacles. Coupled with the founding of Alexandria in 331 BCE, a lighthouse was therefore needed to facilitate trade. Ptolemy appointed Sostratus of Cnidus to build the lighthouse. Construction possibly began in 297 BCE and ended within the early part of Ptolemy II's reign, which was from 283 to 246 BCE. By 150 CE, the lighthouse had two stories and a permeant light source due to increased trading.

[more historical stuff] Much of the lighthouse between the late 8th century CE and the mid-14th century was characterised by repeated damages from the environment and natural disasters, culminating in its collapse in 1341 CE. Following its collapse, some of the lighthouse's bricks were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay.

In [year], lighthosue was reexacated. [Reexacvation stuff, idk]

After its collapse, many reconstructions were made to create a single image for the lighthouse [for anyone wondering, this is probably some to take note of or smth idk]

History

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Origin

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Maritime navigation to Alexandria was dangerous; the coast of northern Egypt had flat littoral lands that were not visible to a sailor, submerged reefs, shallow shoals, and swells.[1] In 331 BCE, Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria in Egypt and designated it to be the capital city.[2] To facilitate trade in Alexandria, a lighthouse needed to be built.[3] To build the lighthouse, King Ptolemy appointed Sostratus of Cnidus, an architect and acuqantice of the king.[4] According to Pliny the Elder, the lighthouse costed 800 talents (23000 kilograms of silver), a tenth of the finances in the treasury of Egypt.[5]

Construction of the lighthouse possibly began in 297 BCE and was completed within the early part of Ptolemy II's reign, which was from 283 to 246 BCE.[6] According to an epigram from Posidippus, the lighthouse was a simple tower with hearths and a statue of Zeus at its apex, though academic Michael Higgins suggests that lighting from the lighthouse was rare as sailing at night was generally avoided in the 3rd Century BCE.[7] [mention that it's a square]

By 150 CE,[8] another floor [mention that it's octagonal] for the Lighthouse of Alexandria was built atop the pre-existing floor. Roman coins from this time period illustrated statues of Tritons – possibly depicted as mermen – on the first floor.[9] The coins also depict a statue of Zeus, possibly the same statue as the one in previous iteration, supported atop the lighthouse by a series of column.[9] Trade during this time period increased such that sailing in the night would have been required, so a permanent light source was installed.[9] It is not known how the light was produced; Higgins hypothesises that underneath the Zeus statue, a hearth would be set on fire, and mirrors underneath the statue would reflect the fire's light.[10]

Islamic

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Compared to the lighthouse in the previous time periods, there is more information on the Lighthouse of Alexandria during the Egypt's Islamic Period since Alexandria was a major stopping point in the pilgrimage to Mecca.[11] A cylindrical section was added atop the previous section.[cn]

During the reign of Al-Walid I (705–715 CE), the upper half of the lighthouse was demolished. According to the writer Al-Masudi, the Byzantines tricked Al-Walid into thinking that there was treasure hidden in the lighthouse. Prior to the demolition, the height of the lighthouse was 1000 cubits (457.2 metres), though a more realistic account by Masudi in 955–956 CE states that the lighthouse's original height before the demolition was 200 metres.[12] Al-Maqrizi recorded that an earthquake between 795–796 CE destroyed the Lighthouse of Alexandria's peak; researcher Andrew Chugg infers that the statue atop the lighthouse would have likely not survived the earthquake, if it was still there by then.[13] Various accounts from writers reveal that the lighthouse was first cracked in 950 CE, indicating that the lighthouse was repaired following the previous earthquake.[13] In a subsequent earthquake in 956 CE, 30 cubits (22 metres) of the lighthouse was destroyed, according to Al-Masudi.[14] Following the earthquake, author Alfred Butler theorised that Sultan Ahmad ibn Tulun ordered a wooden cupola to be installed on the top of the lighthouse in 875 CE.[13] Sultan Al-Kamil replaced the cupola with a mosque, though this was presumably destroyed in another event in the mid-10th century and seemingly replaced as Ibn Jubayr wrote in 1183 CE that a mosque – 30 cubits shorter than the previous iteration – stood at the peak of the lighthouse.[13] By 1165 CE, Al-Balawī detailed that the Lighthouse of Alexandria was in good condition,[15] but a large section of the lighthouse collapsed in 1262 CE due to three traumatic tremors.[13]

On 8 August 1303 CE, an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.0 or higher destroyed part of the lighthouse.[16] Possibly originating from an underwater fault near Crete, the earthquake also damaged other structures part of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[17] When traveller Ibn Battuta visited the Lighthouse of Alexandria in 1326 CE, he found that the lighthouse had a lighthouse keeper despite a section of the building in ruins.[18] Higgins theorised that erosion from the sea destroyed the lighthouse's outer wall, allowing the base of the building to be exposed to sea spray; crystallisation from the sea spray would have weakened the limestone blocks and its masonry, allowing the structure to be exposed to the earthquake.[18] Finally, in 1341 CE, an earthquake destroyed the Lighthouse of Alexandria's main doorway, rendering it inaccessible.[13] When Ibn Battuta returned to Egypt in 1349 CE, he "found that it had fallen into so ruinous a condition that it was not possible to enter it or climb up to the door".[19] A plan of Alexandria from 1472 CE revealed that only remaining part of the lighthouse was its base section.[20]

[add rusty hinges]

Following the collapse, the sultan ordered a small watchtower to be built, though this was never finished.[19] Much of the lighthouse's bricks at the base floor were looted,[20] though some of the bricks were used to construct the Qaitbay fort. The fort, built over the Lighthouse of Alexandria's ruins by Sultan Al-Ashraf Sayf-ad-Din Qait Bay in 1479 CE, utilises the bricks in its doors, windows, and basement.[21] However, most of the lighthouse's bricks were scattered underneath the sea [X km] away from the site.[22] Chugg theorises that the scattering of the stones was due to the large amount of potential energy and wave energy, which came from the proximity of the stones to each other at the lighthouse's base, the height of the lighthouse, and structural swaying from previous earthquakes.[23] [is this not just basic physics???]

Rediscovery and excavations

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The ruins of the Lighthouse of Alexandria were discovered by Egyptian diver Kamal Abou el-Saadat in 1960. He, along with British archaeologist Honor Frost, mapped the ruins, eventually publishing a paper of their mappings in 1975.[24] Between 1994 and 2004, Jean-Yves Empereur

[FIND MORE ABOUT THIS]!!!!

Details

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Map of Pharos Island and the harbour of Alexandria by 1890

The Lighthouse of Alexandria was located on Pharos Island, [distance] away from the harbour of Alexandria.[cn] The island and the mainland were connected by the Heptastadion, a 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) causeway.[cn] Over the course of its existence, the lighthouse was reconstructed many times.[8] When it was first built, The lighthouse was [x] tall.

[very long]

Architecture?

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[long...?]

Reconstruction

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Following the collapse of the lighthouse, many attempts have been made to reconstruct a definitive image of the lighthouse.[25]

Depictions in literature

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Seven wonders of the world

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Writings

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Many Islamic authors wrote about the Lighthouse of Alexandria in a mythic quality. In The Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi, he details that the lighthouse stood on a crab-shaped foundation of glass, with statues at the top of the building; one of them would warn of invaders, whilst the other pointed to the stones in the sea, which contained treasure below.[26]

Notes

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Explanatory footnotes

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  1. ↑ (/ˈfɛərɒs/ FAIR-oss; Ancient Greek: ὁ Φάρος τῆς Ἀλεξανδρείας, romanized: ho Pháros tês Alexandreías, contemporary Koine Greek pronunciation: [ho pʰáros tɛ̂ːs aleksandrěːaːs]; Arabic: فنار الإسكندرية)

Citations

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  1. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 23.
  2. ↑ Chugg 2024, pp. 26–27; Higgins 2023, p. 291.
  3. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 27; Higgins 2023, p. 293.
  4. ↑ Chugg 2024, pp. 24, 27; [place holder] & [place holder], pp. [place holder].
  5. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 31.
  6. ↑ Higgins 2023, p. 293.
  7. ↑ Higgins 2023, p. 296.
  8. 1 2 Higgins 2023, p. 288.
  9. 1 2 3 Higgins 2023, p. 299.
  10. ↑ Higgins 2023, pp. 299–300.
  11. ↑ Higgins 2023, p. 300.
  12. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif 2006, p. 2–3.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chugg 2024, p. 96.
  14. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 96; Higgins 2023, p. 325.
  15. ↑ Higgins 2023, p. 325.
  16. ↑ Chugg 2024; Behrens-Abouseif 2006, p. 8.
  17. ↑ Higgins 2023, pp. 325–326.
  18. 1 2 Higgins 2023, p. 326.
  19. 1 2 Higgins 2023, p. 327.
  20. 1 2 Chugg 2024, p. 92.
  21. ↑ Chugg 2024, pp. 92–93; Higgins 2023, p. 329.
  22. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 93.
  23. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 94.
  24. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 26.
  25. ↑ Chugg 2024, p. 141; Higgins 2023, p. 296.
  26. ↑ Behrens-Abouseif 2006, p. 2.

Sources

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