Wikipedia

Zayn al-Abidin the Great

Ghiyath al-Din Shah Rukh Shahi Khan (Persian: غیاث الدین شاه رخ شاہی خان, romanized: Ghiyāth al-Dīn Shāh Rukh Shāhī Khān; 25 November 1395 – 5 April 1470), commonly known as Zayn al-Abidin the Great,[c] was the ninth sultan of the Kashmir Sultanate, ruling from 1418 to 1419 and again from 1420 until his death in 1470. He was famously called Baḍshāh (The Great King) by his subjects.[10][11]

Zayn al-Abidin
زين العابدين
Depiction of a "King of Kashmir" in the Anwar-e-Sohaili of Husayn Kashifi, c. 1500, Herat [1]
Sultan of Kashmir
Reign7 July 1420 – 5 April 1470
Coronation7 July 1420
PredecessorAli Shah
SuccessorHaider Shah
Reign20 February 1418 – December 1419
Coronation20 February 1418
PredecessorAli Shah
SuccessorAli Shah
Wazir of Kashmir
In office
30 December 1416 – 20 February 1418
MonarchAli Shah
Preceded byHamsa Bhat
Succeeded byOffice suspended
BornShah Rukh
(1395-11-25)25 November 1395
Srinagar, Kashmir Sultanate (present-day Jammu and Kashmir, India)
Died5 April 1470(1470-04-05) (aged 74)
Srinagar, Kashmir Sultanate
Burial12 April 1470
Mazar-e-Salatin, Zaina Kadal, Srinagar
Consort
​
​
(m. 1421; died 1468)​

A sister of Manik Dev, Raja of Jammu[2]
Sunder Devi, daughter of Sunder Sena, Raja of Rajauri[2]
IssueAdham Khan
Haji Khan
Hasan Khan
Bahram Khan
Jasrat Khan
two daughters
Names
Ghiyath al-Din Shah Rukh Shahi Khan
غیاث الدین شاہ رخ شاهی خان
Zayn al-Abidin
زین العابدین
Regnal name
  • Qutb al-Din Abu al-Mujahid al-Adil us-Sultan[3]
  • قطب الدین ابو المجاهد العادل السلطان
Posthumous name
Akbar-e-Kashmir (Akbar of Kashmir)
HouseShah Mir
DynastyGibari[a]
FatherSikandar Shah
MotherMira Khatun
ReligionSunni Islam[b]

The first 35 years of his reign are described by Jonaraja in the Rajatarangini Dvitiya, while the subsequent years are described by his pupil, Srivara, in the Rajatarangini Tritiya.[10] The Sultan also composed poetry in Persian under the pen name of Qutb.[12]

His reign was marked by economic stability, commercial expansion, diplomatic engagement and cultural developments. Trade networks expanded through diplomatic missions to foreign courts, contributing to the growth of major commercial centres such as Srinagar and Anantnag. His rule also witnessed a vibrant cultural renaissance, with developments in education, literature, architecture and the arts. Additionally, Kashmiri architecture during his reign incorporated Indo-Islamic influences.

He was succeeded by his son Haji Khan, who later assumed the regnal title Haider Shah.

Early life

edit
Tanka coin of Sikandar Shah, c. 1394

Birth and Background

edit

Ghiyath al-Din Shah Rukh Shahi Khan was born on 25 November 1395 (11 Safar 798 AH) at the royal palace in Srinagar. He was the son of Sultan Sikandar Shah and Mira Khatun, daughter of Firuz, the chief of Ohind. Sikander Shah had married Mira Khatun following his victory over Firuz during the early years of his reign.

In his youth, Zayn al-Abidin was known as Shahi Khan and was tutored by Mulla Kabir, who is described as a Kashmiri polymath.[13]

Years in Samarkand

edit

Zain-ul-Abidin was sent to Samarkand by his father as part of a diplomatic mission to Timur’s court. He spent seven to eight years in Samarkand, gaining experience with the city's advanced arts, crafts, and administrative systems before returning to Kashmir following Timur's death in 1405.[14][15] Later accounts state that he returned to Kashmir accompanied by artisans and craftsmen, including paper-makers, bookbinders, carpet weavers, saddle makers, and other skilled workers, who contributed to the development of local industries during his reign.[16]

Appointment as wazir

edit

On 30 December 1416, on Eid al-Adha, Shahi Khan assassinated the rebellious wazir of Sultan Ali Shah, Hamsabhatta, in the Eidgah.[citation needed] Ali Shah later appointed Shahi Khan as his wazir.

Rise to power

edit

Regency under Ali Shah

edit

Shahi Khan was entrusted with the administration of the sultanate, when his elder brother, Ali Shah, departed on a pilgrimage to Mecca. During this period, Ali Shah gave Shahi Khan the title of Zayn al-Abidin (Ornament of Worshippers).

Ali Shah later abandoned his pilgrimage after he arrived at the court of his father-in-law, the Raja Bhim Dev of Jammu, and raised an army consisting of soldiers from Jammu and Rajauri in attempt to reclaim his throne. According to historical accounts, Zayn al-Abidin relinquished his recently acquired authority without resistance, though the reasons for this remain disputed.[17]

Civil war and accession

edit

Zayn al-Abidin withdrew to Sialkot and sought the support of its ruler, Jasrat. A civil war followed after Ali Shah marched against Jasrat. The two armies met at Thanna, where Jasrat defeated Ali Shah's forces. According to Srivara, Ali Shah was killed by Jasrat. However, later Persian chronicles claim that he escaped the battlefield. Zayn al-Abidin was then able to return to the capital city of Srinagar, where he was welcomed by his subjects. However, the conflict resumed when Ali Shah, supported by the Raja of Jammu, again entered the Kashmir valley. Zayn al-Abidin marched against him through the Baramulla pass and confronted him at Uri, where Ali Shah suffered another defeated. Accounts of Ali Shah's final fate differ; some state that he may have died in captivity, while others suggest that he was executed by Khokhar.[17]

Reign

edit
Sasnu coin issued by Zayn al-Abidin, c. 1428

Consolidation of authority

edit

Although generally regarded as a peaceful ruler, After securing the throne, Zayn al-Abidin undertook several military campaigns to preserve the territorial integrity of the sultanate. He reasserted authority over the fractious areas of Ladakh and Baltistan, regions earlier conquered by his grandfather, Shihabu'd-Din Shah but which had asserted independence until Sikander reasserted control. During Ali Shah's rule, the territories had once again begun to assert their independence. Similarly, he also regained control over Ohind, the chief of which had been overcome by Sikander but had then announced independence during the period of rule by Ali Shah.[18]

Foreign relations

edit

Zayn al-Abidin maintained diplomatic relations with several contemporary states and dynasties, including Mamluk Egypt, Timurid Khurasan, Tomaras of Gwalior, Sharif of Mecca, Bengal Sultanate, Sindh Sultanate, Gujarat Sultanate, Phagmodrupa dynasty of Tibet and Kar-Kiyas of Gilan.

Historical records report that embassies were exchanged and gifts presented between courts. Contemporary accounts note that Zayn al-Abidin valued scholarly and literary gifts more highly than precious objects[19]

Succession disputes

edit

Towards the end of his reign, his sons, Adam Khan, Haji Khan and Bahram Khan rebelled against him, however he eventually suppressed the rebellions. After his death, he was succeeded by Haji Khan, who took the title of Haidar Khan.[20]

Administrative reforms

edit

Zayn al-Abidin enforced collective responsibility among village communities for local crimes and regulated commodity prices. He also stabilized the currency, which had been debased under earlier rulers and also prevented the local governors from exacting illegal taxes and gave the peasants much needed tax relief.[21] His reign saw the construction of numerous public works, including urban settlements, bridges and irrigation canals.[22]

Religious policies

edit

Zayn al-Abidin is noted for his policy of religious tolerance and public welfare. He abolished the jizya imposed on the Hindus in Kashmir. He also encouraged the return of Hindus who had left Kashmir during the reign of his father.[22] He allowed the Hindus to rebuild temples and follow personal law according to the Dharma shastras. He prohibited the killing of cows by poisoning and introduced regulations concerning the consumption of beef. He restored stipends to learned Brahmans.[21] According to Hargopal Koul, the Sultan was referred to not only as ''Bud Shah'' (Great King) but also as ''But Shah'' because of his patronage of Kashmiri Pandits.[23]

Architectural Initiatives

edit
Tomb of the mother of Zayn al-Abidin known as the Budshah Tomb

Zayn al-Abidin undertook numerous construction projects during his reign, although the vast majority of these wooden structures have been lost to fire and time. Today, only a small number of brick and stone structures survive.

He founded the new town of Naushahr (Nowshera), which is now part of Srinagar, to serve as his capital. The pièce de résistance of the new capital was a spectacular 50-room palace built out of wood. Mirza Haidar Dughlat described this palace as having 12 storeys, a dome made out of gold, and halls lined with glass.[24][25] He established a prominent academic institution near his royal residency in Naushahr.[13]

Besides Naushahr, Zayn al-Abidin founded at least three other towns: Zaynapur, Zaynagir, and Zaynakot. Zaynagir boasted an impressive palace of its own, which was surrounded by a picturesque garden. This palace was probably destroyed during the later Shah Mir period. Zaynakot still exists as a village 4 km west of Srinagar. Another project Zayn al-Abidin undertook was the reclaiming of an island in the northeastern part of Wular Lake. The island had existed before, but by his time, it had become submerged. In 1443-4, he had a palace, mosque, and garden built on the reclaimed island, which was dubbed Zaynalank.[26]

The only buildings commissioned by Zayn al-Abidin that still exist are the tomb of his mother, and the mosque and tomb of Madani.[25]

Educational Renaissance

edit

Dar-ul-Ulum at Naushahr

edit

Zayn al-Abidin established higher academic institution near his royal palace in his capital Naushahr (present day Nowshera in Srinagar), described by contemporary accounts as Dar-ul-Ulum (residential university) of Naushahr or also as Madrassah Sultani[27] which flourished under the rectorship of the polymath Mulla Kabir Kashmiri, who was the tutor of Zayn al-Abidin and was also appointed as Shaykh al-Islām.[28][29] The institution attracted an international faculty of scholars. The university's expenses were funded by revenues of several assigned villages.[28] The institution reportedly survived until the 17th century.[30]

Translation bureau and literary movement

edit

Zayn al-Abidin extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit language and literature.[31] He was proficient in Persian, Sanskrit, and Tibetan. He established a translation bureau under the auspices of the educational institution.[28][32] At this bureau, works were translated from Arabic and Sanskrit into Persian and Kashmiri. The Mahabharata and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated into Persian by his orders.[22][33] A Persian history of Kashmir was also compiled during this period.

Interreligious patronage

edit

Zayn al-Abidin’s patronage of scholarship extended to both Muslim and Hindu scholars. Contemporary accounts describe Hindu scholars as receiving generous rewards for distinction in literature and science. Among the prominent scholars associated with his court was Soma, who occupied an important position in the translation bureau, supervised educational affairs, and composed the Zaina Charita, a biographical work on the Sultan. Another scholar, Bodi Bat, was reputed to have memorised the entirety of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, which he recited before the Sultan.[28]

Cultural and Industrial Renaissance

edit

During the reign of Zayn al-Abidin, Kashmir witnessed significant developments in crafts and industry. Influenced by the administrative and cultural models of Central Asia, particularly Samarkand, where Zayn al-Abidin spent 8 years of his youth, he encouraged settlements of artisans, craftsmen and scholars from Iran, Turan, Turkistan, and Hindustan in Kashmir. Additionally he sent his subjects to foreign regions to learn about certain industries[14]

Papier-Mâché

edit

Papier-Mâché (Kar-i-Qalamdan) developed into an organized craft tradition. Its main centre was established at Zayn al-Abidin's capital, Naushahr in Srinagar. Originally associated with the production of decorated pen cases (qalamdan), the craft was practiced in royal workshops (karkhanas) where artisans specialized in moulding paper pulp and painting ornamental designs.[14][34][35]

Paper manufacturing

edit

Paper manufacturing (Koshur Kaqaziri) expanded under Zayn al-Abidin through introduction of rag-based paper-making techniques associated with Samarkand. Prior to this, birch bark was widely used as writing material in Kashmir.[14][34]

Textile

edit

Textile sector grew during his reign. Weaving centres operated under royal patronage and adopted techniques linked to Persian and Central Asian traditions. Carpet Weaving (Kaleen) developed through introduction of Persian weaving methods and knotting techniques. Workshops trained local artisans in the production of hand-knotted carpets, while the Taleem system was used to communicate weaving patterns and colour sequences through coded instructions.[36]

Artisanship

edit

Decorative woodcraft traditions such as Khatamband ceilings and Pinjrakari were introduced during this period. Stone polishing, stone cutting, metal works and bottle making were among the techniques taught during his reign.[37]

Death

edit
Tomb of Zayn al-Abidin in 1866

At the end of his career, Zayn al-Abidin suffered from amnesia and schizophrenia. His consort, Taj Khatoon, was dead, and all four of his sons were busy quarrelling, among themselves for the throne.[38] He neglected his official duties and let the ministers do the paperwork. He also developed a persecution delusion as he abstained from the food given to him by his ministers, fearing a chance of being poisoned. Zayn al-Abidin died on his bed on 5 May 1470 and was buried in the Mazar-e-Salatin, the royal cemetery of Shah Mir dynasty in Srinagar on 12 May. Kashmir fell into several days of mourning after the demise of the Budshah.[39]

Legacy

edit

Zayn al-Abidin is acknowledged by scholars as a great ruler of Kashmir. Historian Mohibbul Hasan calls him the greatest of all the sultans of Kashmir, who provided half a century of "peace, prosperity and benevolent rule" to the people of Kashmir.[40]

Of all the Sulṭāns who sat on the throne of Kashmīr, Zainu'l-Ābidīn was undoubtedly the greatest.

— Mohibbul Hassan, Kashmir Under the Sultans

Notes

edit
  1. ↑ Modern scholarship differ on the origin of the Shah Mirs. However, most modern historians generally accept that Shah Mir, the founder of the dynasty, was from Swat in Dardistan.[4][5][6][7] Some accounts including those of Tahir, Haidar Malik, Rafiu'd Din Ahmad and Muhammad A'azam trace his descent from the Gibarid rulers of Swāt.[8][9]
  2. ↑ School of Jurisprudence: Hanafi
  3. ↑ Persian: زین العابدینِ اعظم,, romanized: Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn-e-Āzam

References

edit
  1. ↑ Balafrej, Lamia (2019). The making of the artist in late Timurid painting. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9781474437455. Figure 1.7 'Story of the King of Kashmir' from a copy of the Anwar-i suhayli of Husayn Wa'iz Kashifi. Herat (?), c. 1480. 16.7 × 9.7 cm (jadwal). Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC: The Art and History Collection, LTS1995.2.155. (...) The accompanying text does not include any narrative. It describes the king of Kashmir, emphasizing his wealth and his military power.
  2. 1 2 Hasan 2005, p. 82.
  3. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 294. doi:10.4324/9781032666709. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  4. ↑ Wani, Muhammad Ashraf; Wani, Aman Ashraf (22 February 2023). The Making of Early Kashmir: Intercultural Networks and Identity Formation. Taylor & Francis. p. 225. ISBN 978-1-000-83655-4.
  5. ↑ Malik, Jamal (6 April 2020). Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition. BRILL. p. 157. ISBN 978-90-04-42271-1.
  6. ↑ Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1970). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.
  7. ↑ Markovits, Claude (24 September 2004). A History of Modern India, 1480-1950. Anthem Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-84331-152-2.
  8. ↑ Gull, Surayia (2003), Mir Saiyid Ali Hamadani And Kubraviya Sufi Order In Kashmir, Kanikshka Publishers, Distributors, p. 3, ISBN 978-81-7391-581-9
  9. ↑ Bhatt, Saligram (2008). Kashmiri Scholars Contribution to Knowledge and World Peace: Proceedings of National Seminar by Kashmir Education Culture & Science Society (K.E.C.S.S.), New Delhi. APH Publishing. p. 108. ISBN 978-81-313-0402-0.
  10. 1 2 Sharma, Tej Ram (2005). Historiography: A History of Historical Writing. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-155-3.
  11. ↑ Walter Slaje, Three Bhaṭṭas, Two Sulṭāns, and the Kashmirian Atharvaveda. In: The Atharvaveda and its Paippalādaśākhā. Historical and Philological Papers on a Vedic Tradition. Ed. by ARLO GRIFFITHS and ANNETTE SCHMIEDCHEN. [Geisteskultur Indiens. Texte und Studien.11. = Studia Indologica Univer-sitatis Halensis.] Aachen 2007: 329–353.
  12. ↑ Hasan, Mohibbul (26 September 2023). Kashmir Under the Sultans. London: Routledge. p. 91. doi:10.4324/9781032666709. ISBN 978-1-032-66670-9.
  13. 1 2 Zutshi, N. K. (1976). Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir: An Age of Enlightenment. Nupur Prakashan. p. 25.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Sufi 1979, p. 74.
  15. ↑ Bamzai 1962, pp. 299–300.
  16. ↑ Didamari 2019, p. 81.
  17. 1 2 Hasan 2005, p. 70.
  18. ↑ Hasan 2005, p. 78.
  19. ↑ Hasan 2005, p. 80.
  20. ↑ Majumdar 1967, p. 383.
  21. 1 2 Majumdar 1967, p. 382.
  22. 1 2 3 Mahajan, V.D. (1991, reprint 2007). History of Medieval India, Part I, New Delhi: S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-0364-5, p.277
  23. ↑ Koul, Hargopal. Guldasta. p. 116.
  24. ↑ Chadaura, Haidar Malik. Tarikh-i-Kashmir. p. 145.
  25. 1 2 Hasan 2005, pp. 97–98.
  26. ↑ Hasan (2005), pp. 98, 105.
  27. ↑ Khoyihami 1960, p. 415.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Sufi 1979, p. 148.
  29. ↑ Zutshi, N. K. (1976). Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir: An Age of Enlightenment. Nupur Prakashan. p. 25.
  30. ↑ Hasan 2005, p. 94.
  31. ↑ Mehta, Jl, Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, pp. 86–, ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3
  32. ↑ Lāʼibrerī, K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik (1997). Khuda Bakhsh Library journal (in Urdu). K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibreri.
  33. ↑ Hasan 2005, p. 87.
  34. 1 2 Bamzai 1962, p. 302.
  35. ↑ Saraf 1987, p. 125.
  36. ↑ Saraf 1987, p. 89.
  37. ↑ Lone, Shabir Ahmad; Begum, R. Abida; Begum, S. Nazeemunnisa; Mir, Javaid Ahmad; Lone, Mohammad Ishaq (24 February 2025). "THE RENAISSANCE KING: ZAIN-UL-ABIDIN'S REIGN IN KASHMIR" (PDF). International Journal of Educational Review, Law And Social Sciences (IJERLAS Journal). 5 (2). Radja Publika: 416. eISSN 2808-487X.
  38. ↑ "Kashmir's 'Great King' Who Turned Schizophrenic During His Last Days". Kashmir Observer. 28 May 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
  39. ↑ Hasan 2005, pp. 79–80.
  40. ↑ Hasan 2005, pp. 71.

Bibliography

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zayn_al-Abidin_the_Great&oldid=1358725927"