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User:Tiamut/Coins

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Background

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The Ghazzat hoard.

The transition from the use of weighted metals (hacksilber) to coins in the Palestine occurred during the rule of the Achaemenid empire between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.[1] The first coins to be used in 538 BC, prior to the establishment of local mints, were the gold daric and silver siglos minted by the Achaemenid imperial authority.[2]

Coins from other parts of the Mediterranean Sea region were also in circulation, as attested in finds like the Ghazzat hoard consisting of about 30 Archaic and early Classical Greek and Lycian silver coins discovered underwater near the shore of Gaza, Palestine.[3][4] These coins belong to a rather narrow period, from the end of the 6th century BCE, to the first quarter of the 5th century BCE (circa 510-475 BCE), with a deposition date of circa 480 BCE.[3]

Achaemenid rule

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Silver drachma minted in Gaza, Palestine (450-331 BC)[5]

Local minting began in the fifth Persian satrapy of Eber-Nari ("beyond the river") in the coastal cities of Philistia, and expanded inland afterward to the sub-satrapies of Samerina (Samaria) Yehud (Judah) and perhaps Idumea (Edom). These mints continued producing coins until Alexander the Great conquered Gaza in 332 BC.[6] While most of the provincial mints in the satrapies of Persia were permitted to produce only bronze coins of small denominations, two Palestinian mints did produce silver coins, attesting to their relative importance; Gaza minted silver tetradrachms, and Ascalon silver didrachms.[7]

Philisto-Arabian/Philistian

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Silver drachma with male laurelled head on obverse, two lions on reverse, minted in Gaza c. 450-331 BC (Gitler/Tal)[8]
Isdud coin male bearded and crowned head on obverse, face of Bes on reverse c. 450-331 BC (Gitler/Tal)[9]

The first area in the region of Palestine to transition from a bullion to coin monetary exchange system was Philistia in the 5th century BC.[10][11] Minting of one shekel (šql) silver coins with a weight 14.32 grams, also called tetradrachms, was first undertaken in Ascalon, Isdud and Gaza, three of the cities of the pentapolis, under Achaemenid rule.[10]

It is estimated Gaza minted its first coins around 450-440 BC on the Athenian Attic weight model,[12][13] though the earliest issues bear no dates or inscriptions, and are "defined as Philistian on the basis of circulation, fabric, metrology, and especially iconography."[10]

Iconography is varied with 350 different Philistian coin motifs so far identified, incorporating Hellenistic, Phoenician, Persian and Egyptian influences, featuring falcons, sphinxes, and deities like Bes, Janus and Athena, and perhaps an Arabian deity depicted riding a camel.[11][10] However, there is noticeably less Phoenician and especially Persian iconography in the Philistian issues compared to those produced in the rest of Palestine in the period of Achaemenid rule.[14]

Coins were made of 94 percent silver, and by the 4th century BC began to be produced in small and middle values, bearing inscriptions in Aramaic lapidary (or Aramaic square script) with some letters of the Phoenician alphabet script indicating the mint city name.[10][11] A quarter of a Philistian šql (or rb' šql, rb' meaning "quarter" in Semitic languages, and šql ("shekel"), also called a drachm, weighed 3.58 grams.[10] Smaller denominations included the m'h (1/24 šql of 0.60 grams, also called obol), and the half m'h (1/48 šql of 0.30 grams, also called hemiobol).[10]

Initially, numismatic categories misattributed coins belonging to mints in Ascalon and Isdud to Gaza, due to the obscurity of mint names on the coins. It is now accepted that some Ascalon coins can be distinguished by the use of alef and the letter nun (𐤀‎ and 𐤍‎), the first and last letters of the name Ascalon, in Aramaic or Phoenician scripts, or by the use of the palm-branch motif, which is speculated to be an Ascalon mint mark.[15] Greek inscriptions like ΑΘΕ (the initials for Athens) also appear on some coins, but only because they were part of the decorative design in Athenian standards that the local mints were mimicking.[15]

The Isdud mint mark included a pictograph of a bull's head with an Aramaic inscription of the full name of the city, minus the initial alef (šdd), or abbreviated forms (ʾd, ʾš, and šd).[10] The Gaza mint marks included the full name of the city using a Phoenician letter "ayin" plus the next two letters in Aramaic lapidary (ʿzh) or was abbreviated as ʿz or zayin or ayin alone, and also often included a lower case m for Marnas which was the main deity worshipped in Gaza City.[10]

Production ended with the conquest of Alexander the Great - for Isdud, permanently, while Gaza resumed minting under Ptolemy II and Ascalon under Ptolemy IV.[11] The earliest Yehud coinage, a series of silver coins, was likely produced via a commission placed by the province of Yehud to the Philistian mints, as Jerusalem was a small town at the time surrounding by rural hamlets and lacked its own minting facilities.[16]

Samaria/Judah provincial mints

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Obverse of a Judean silver Yehud coin from the Persian era (0.58 gram), with falcon or eagle and Aramaic inscription YHD (Judea). Denomination is a Ma'ah.

The mint in Samaria (370/365-322 BC) produced small 92 percent silver coins exclusively for domestic circulation. These were based on the Phoenician-Attic local standard, with Greek and Aramaic inscriptions, sometimes also bearing images of cuneiform, Greek deities (Zeus, Aphrodite), a winged sun god and chimera.[11] As was the case in Philistia, minting ceased with Alexander's conquest, only resuming centuries later under the rule of Herod the Great (r. c. 37 - 4 BC).[11]

Yehud coinage from a mint in the province of Judah also produced solely small silver denominations (5-8 mm), crude, chipped, off-centre and for domestic use only around this time too.[11] The name of these coins is derived from the Phoenician alphabet inscription YHD (𐤉‬𐤄𐤃‬), "Yehud", the Aramaic name of the Achaemenid Persian province of Yehud; others are inscribed YHDH, the same name but a Biblical Hebrew form using Aramaic square script. The minting of Yehud coins commenced around the middle of the fourth century BC (ca 350 BC), and also ended with Alexander' conquest, resuming centuries later following permission granted by the ruling Seleucid empire to the Hasmonean dynasty.[11][17]

Hellenistic-Roman

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Hellenistic coin from the Gaza mint.
Silver coin, half a drachma, depicting the head of the goddess Tyche, minted at Ascalon, Palestine in 111-109 BC[18]
Coin of Alexander Jannaeus (103 to 76 BCE).
Obv: Seleucid anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEOS ALEXANDROU "King Alexander".
Rev: Eight-spoke wheel or starburst within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: "Yehonatan Hamelech" (Yehonatan the King).
A coin issued by the Jewish rebels in 68–69 CE, note Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. Obverse: 𐤔𐤒𐤋 𐤉𐤔𐤓𐤀𐤋 "Shekel, Israel. Year 3". Reverse: 𐤉𐤓𐤅𐤔𐤋𐤉𐤌 𐤄𐤒𐤃𐤅𐤔𐤄 "Jerusalem the Holy".
Cleopatra VII tetradrachm from the Ascalon mint in Roman Palestine
Largest coin of Herod the Great
Agrippa I, with Gaius (Caligula). 37-43 CE. Æ 23mm (11.53 g, 12h). Caesarea Paneas mint. Dated RY 5 (40/1 CE). laureate head of Gaius (Caligula) left, (Tiberias; same dies)
Silver drachm of Aretas IV with his wife Khuld from 2 BC.

The mints in Palestine initially went dormant following Alexander's conquest, as a new imperial currency was produced and dominated. Only one of these imperial mints was established locally in Akka/Ptolmey, the rest outside Palestine.[11] Akka was the first city in the region to produce coins, both gold staters and silver drachmas, bearing Alexander's name, and these are dated from year 20 (327 BC) to year 39 (308/7 BC) following his conquest, by which time he was already dead.[19] The mintmark was the name of the city in its two letters in Phoenician alphabet script: 𐤊‎𐤏‎ (ayin and kaf read right to left).[19]

Ptolemaic

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Gaza's mint was the first local mint to resume production under the rule of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284-246 BC), stamping out coins adorned with the busts of gods and emperors,[20] including Gordian III.[21] Local mints subsequently proliferated, with thirty-eight Palestinian cities minting coins at various times during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The vast majority of these coins are dated, referencing individual city eras/calendars. The royal Ptolemaic silver struck in Gaza, and other urban centres on the Palestinian coast like Ptolemais (Akka) and Joppe (Jaffa), was mostly dated by the regnal years of the kings of the empire, and the only local content represented upon them was the cities' monograms.[22]

Seleucid rule (198–103 BCE), and the Hasmonean and Nabataean kingdoms

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By 169/168 BCE, during the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175 – 164 BCE), Ascalon was one of 19 cities across the Seleucid empire granted minting rights. Coins minted in Ascalon constitute a key body of evidence for reconstructing the city's political history during the late Hellenistic period.[23]

An autonomous coin minted in 168/167 BCE[a] provides the only direct evidence that Ascalon held polis status by that time. The coin features a portrait of the Greek goddess Tyche on one side, and the bow of a warship with the inscriptions "of the Ascalonians" and "of the demos" on the other side.[24]

The mint in Gaza was again producing its own civic coins in the second half of the second century BCE, bearing images of Zeus or Tyche, and this time with Greek inscriptions reading: "ΔΗΜΟΥ CΕΛ TWN EN ΓΑZHC ('of the people of the Seleucians who are in Gaza'), or ΔΗΜΟΥ ΓΑZΑIΩΝ ('of the people of the Gazans'), or ΔΗΜΟΥ ΓΑZΑΙΩΝ ΙΕΡ(ΑΣ) ΑΣY(ΛΟΥ) ('of the people of the sacred and inviolable [city] of the Gazans'".[25] These coins testify to the special status the people in the city of Gaza enjoyed under Seleucid rule.[26]

The political turmoil engendered by the Maccabean Revolt (167–141 BCE), the establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in Jerusalem, and the outbreak of the Seleucid Dynastic Wars in 157 BCE is reflected the coinage of the region. When Diodotus Tryphon seized power in 142 BC, the Ascalon mint began issuing coins bearing his portrait. Antiochus VII Sidetes later challenged Tryphon, becoming the sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 138 BC. Often regarded as the last strong Seleucid monarch, Sidetes retained control over the Levantine coast, including Ascalon, while the Hasmoneans held Jaffa to the north.[27]

In 138 BC, the Seleucid King Antiochus VII Sidetes published a royal decree, granting Simon Maccabaeus the right to mint his own coinage.[28] Hasmonean coinage of bronze prutahs were issued between 135 and 76 BC and for the last time by Matityahu Antigonus between 40 and 37 BC.

Following Sidetes death in 128 BC, the Seleucid Empire fell into renewed civil war. Around 126–123 BC, Ascalon came under the control of Alexander II Zabinas, a usurper backed by Ptolemaic Kingdom to the south. His brief reign ended when the Ptolemaics shifted their support to his rival, Antiochus VIII Grypus, who defeated Zabinas in 123/122 BC and took power. Grypus's mother Cleopatra Thea, acted as both queen consort and as the de facto ruler. Coins minted in Ascalon from this period depict both her and Gryphus until her death in 121 BC. From 120 and 114 BC, Ascalon's coinage featured only Gryphus portrait.[29]

In 114/113 BC, Gryphus' half-brother, Antiochus IX Cyzicenus, launched a campaign to seize the throne. He captured most of the Selecuid territory, including Ascalon, which minted coins in his name for two years, until 112/111 BC. Historians suggest that both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hasmonean dynasty may have aided Gryphus in the retaking of Ascalon. Around this time, the city was granted the status of a "holy" and "inviolable" city, likely exempting it from certain taxes and granting it partial of full autonomy, including immunity from legal enforcement actions, except in cases of offenses against the Seleucid king.[30][31]

The precise beginning date for the minting of Nabataean coins remains a subject of inquiry among scholars. Coins bearing the Greek letter 'A' and imitating the style of Alexandrine gold coins have been identified as a Nabataean mintmark referencing Aretas, the Greek form of the Arabic name Harith, borne by several Nabataean (and later Ghassanid) kings. Based on finds of these coins at Tell Beer es-Saba' and Marisa, Kushnir-Stein and Gilter (1992) propose they were minted under the reign of Aretas II (c. 153–104 BC). Other scholars assign them to Aretas III (84-62 BC) or even as late as Aretas IV (9 BC-40 AD).[32]

Coins minted during the reign of Aretas III evoked the style of Seleucid coins from Damascus and also carried Greek inscriptions; a Nabataean mint is thought to have been based in that city until he lost control of it in 72 BC, at which time Petra became the central mint. The first Nabataean coins thus far identified to carry Nabataean language characters began to be minted under the rule of Obodas II (c. 62–60 BC). From that point until the last days of the rule of Rabbel II (70-106 AD), Nabataean silver and bronze coins were minted carrying the regnal years and Nabataean script.[32] Al-Mbayyid writes in his book (reviewed by Abd al-'Al) that there was a Nabataean mint in Gaza from the time of the rule of Aretas III until the Roman annexation of the kingdom in 106 CE, and describes the series of coins issued featuring the successive kings and their wives with legends in Nabataean script recording their Arab names.[33]

Roman Palestine

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"Gaza" in Greek letters on obverse, portrait of Antoninus Pius (138-161 AC) on reverse
Bronze coin issued during the reign of Caracalla, minted in Rafah (Raphia)
  • Under the rule of the Roman Empire in the 1st century, minting in Palestinian cities was confined to only bronze or copper issues, with only a handful of cities outside the imperial center permitted to issue silver coins.[34]
  • First Jewish revolt coinage (66-73 AC): The coins, which have been known since medieval times, were formerly described as having Samaritan inscriptions.[35][36][37] It was not until the mid-20th century that they were correctly attributed to the First Jewish Revolt.[38] This was the first instance of silver coinage in Jewish history.[39] The newly minted silver coins included shekels, half-shekels, and quarter-shekels, each being labelled with the year of minting and their denomination.[40]

Byzantine

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Caliphates

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Arab-Byzantine

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Arab-Byzantine Coinage, the "Standing Caliph" (Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik), minted in Iliya (Jerusalem). To left, 'Muhammad'. To right, 'Rasul allah'. Rx: Large M with 'iliya' (Jersualem) to left and 'filastin' (Arabic name of Palestine) to right.

Umayyad

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Another early series of coins issued at 19 mints in the five junds of Umayyad Caliphate (Filastin, Dimashq, Hims, Qinnasrin. and al-Jazira) for about five years between 692 and 699 CE under the rule of Abd al-Malik are the "Standing Caliph" coins.[46] These coins depict the Caliph standing on the obverse in the style of the Byzantine Emperor, and on the reverse carry either the name of the mint and province, or just the sign of the jund in which it was produced. In Palestine, the three mints that produced them were those of Iliya (Jerusalem), Ludd (Lydd), and Yibna. Even when the mint name is not recorded, coins from Jund Filastin are distinguishable from all others by the cursive 'm' on the reverse, (the Amman mint in Jund Dimashq, using an 'M' but majescule style).[47] The other mints use a Greek-like phi symbol Φ on steps.[46] There was a marked increase in the number of unprovenanced non-Filastin "Standing Caliph" coins for sale on the Internet between 2011 and 2017, apparently as a result of the looting of archaeological artifacts during the war on Syria.[46]

  • more detail on the symbolism on the steps of the Standing Caliph coins and possible references to ancient Syrian astral cults[47]

The Arabic word dinar was already extant in the pre-Islamic era and derived from the Greek drachma.[7] The first gold dinars of the Umayyad Caliphate were issued under the rule of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 695, establishing a single gold standard throughout the vast territory it ruled.[48] Silver dirhams were also issued based on those of the Sasanian empire.

One group of bronze coins from Palestine,[49] dated after the coinage reform of the late 690s, features the image of a seven-branched candelabra (menorah) and then later of a five-branched candelabra, topped by an Arabic inscription of the shahada.[40] These images may have been based on Christian representations of the menorah[40] or on earlier Hasmonean models.[49]

Abbasid-Ikshidid-Tulunid-Seljuq

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al-Ma’mun, AH 194-218, AD 813-833. Fals de cuivre AH 219, al-Quds (Jérusalem). Under the Umayyads Jerusalem was known by its Roman name Iliya Filastin (Arabic names for Palestine), but from the time of al-Ma’mun it was given the Islamic religious name al-Quds (meaning «holiness» or «sanctity»)
ISLAMIC, Egypt & Syria (Pre-Fatimid). Ikhshidids. Abu'l-Qasim Unujur. AH 334-349 / AD 946-960. AV Dinar (22mm, 3.51 g, 2h). Filastin (al-Ramla) mint. Dated AH 337 (AD 949/50).
Fatimid era gold dinar (976-977 AD, Filastin (Ramla) mint

Over the course of the rule of twelve Abbasid era Caliphs, there were coin mints in Lydd, Tiberias, Acre, Caesarea, Jerusalem, Gaza, Ashkelon, Beit Jibrin, and Palestine (Filastin, another name for Ramla).[50]

Fatimid

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Gold dinar of al-Mu'izz, struck in Palestine in 969 or 970.
  • Mint cities: Acre, Ascalon, Ayla,Tiberias, Ramla (provincial capital and chief mint for Palestine)
  • Fatimid gold dinars wrte minted in Akka (also further north in Tripoli and Tyre and further south in Egypt). The Crusaders copied the Fatimid issues of al-Amir and al-Mustanir from Akka (and possibly Jerusalem?) but with a degraded gold composition and garbled legends.

Ayyubid-Crusader

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Crusader coins of the Kingdom of Jerusalem: Denier in European style with Holy Sepulchre (1162–75); Kufic gold bezant (1140–1180); gold bezant with Christian symbol (1250s). British Museum, London.

The first Crusader gold dinars imitated those of the Fatimid empire.[52]

Mint at Akka (Acre) run by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem made coins in the 1250s imitating those of thr Ayyubid dynasty produced in Damascus[53]

Ottoman

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Mandatory Palestine

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References

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  1. ↑ Betylon, February 2008.
  2. ↑ Abd al-'Al, 2005.
  3. 1 2 Lopez, 2015.
  4. ↑ Classical Numismatics Group, Ghazzat hoard
  5. ↑ Notice bibliographique
  6. ↑ Reclassifying Persian-Period Philistian Coins: Some New Identifications
  7. 1 2 Eph'al, 1998, pp. 106-119.
  8. ↑ Notice bibliographique
  9. ↑ Notice bibliographique
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tal, 2016, pp. 252-254.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hubner, Ulrich (2014). "The Monetization of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law, and Ethics". Money as God?. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159–183.
  12. ↑ Giovanni Gorini and Michele Asolati, ed. (2008). I ritrovamenti monetali e i processi inflativi nel mondo antico e medievale atti del IV Congresso internazionale di numismatica e di storia monetaria, Padova, 12-13 ottobre 2007. p. 34.
  13. ↑ Mildenberg, Leo (1998). "Gaza Mint Authorities in Persian Times. Preliminary Studies of the Local Coinage in the fifth Persian Satrapy. Part 4". Vestigia Leonis. Studien zur antiken Numismatik Israels, Palästinas und der östlichen Mittelmeerwelt. Freiburg / Göttingen: Universitätsverlag / Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-3-525-53907-1.
  14. ↑ Fischer-Bossert, 2006: "Unlike the Samarians, the Philistians were more disdainful of Phoenician and Persian iconography. Persian imagery is confined to some depictions of bull-protome capitals, and a certain Eastern influence can be felt in the preference for composite figures (the so-called grylloi). It is true there are some images of a prince’s head wearing a jagged crown (i.e., the Great King), but there are no pictures of Persian dignitaries and soldiers, and no legends of Persian governors, much less of a satrap, as is seen on Samarian coinage. Thus the Philistian coinage differs considerably from other local coinages of Palestine."
  15. 1 2 Gitler, 1996, pp. 1-9.
  16. ↑ Fontanille et al., 223, pp.337-348.
  17. ↑ Gitler H., Lorber C., Fontanille J.-P. (2023),The Yehud Coinage: A Study and Die Classification of the Provincial Silver Coinage of Judah. (Introduction) Israel Numismatic Society; Jerusalem, Israel.
  18. ↑ Notice bibliographique
  19. 1 2 Syon, 2020, pp. 67-73.
  20. ↑ Cite error: The named reference Doughty was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ↑ Rigsby 1997, p. 522.
  22. ↑ Kushnir-Stein, 2005.
  23. ↑ Fuks 2001, pp. 24–25.
  24. ↑ Fuks 2001, pp. 25–26.
  25. ↑ Farhi, 2015, pp. 142 - 143.
  26. ↑ Cite error: The named reference Farhi was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  27. ↑ Fuks 2001, pp. 27–28.
  28. ↑ Reifenberg, A. Ancient Jewish Coins, Jerusalem, 1965, p.10
  29. ↑ Fuks 2001, pp. 28–29.
  30. ↑ Fuks 2001, pp. 29–31.
  31. ↑ Brett, A. B. (1950). "The Mint of Ascalon Under The Seleucids". Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society). 4: 51–52. JSTOR 43573311.
  32. 1 2 Halayqa, 2020, pp. 7-12.
  33. ↑ Abd al'Al, 2005.
  34. 1 2 Masalha, 2018.
  35. ↑ Bayer, Francisco Pérez (1781). De numis Hebraeo-Samaritanis (in Latin). Benedictus Monfort. Retrieved 2025-06-14.
  36. ↑ Tychsen, Olaus Gerhardus; Tychsen, Oluf Gerhard (1779). Die Unächtheit der jüdischen Münzen mit hebräischen und samaritanischen Buchstaben bewiesen (in German). Koppen. Retrieved 2025-06-14.
  37. ↑ Madden, Frederic W. (1864). History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Old and New Testament. Quaritch. p. ii. Retrieved 2025-06-14. Subsequent to the period of the completion of the Talmud, the more ancient Jewish coins with so-called Samaritan inscriptions have been noticed by the old Jewish scholars, and mentioned by them in their writings,1for instance, by Hai Gaon (1020),a Maimonides (1190), Nachmanides (1267), Estori-ha-parchi (1322), and at a later period, by Moses Alaschkar (1530) and Asaria de Rossi (1571); also by some learned Christians of the 16th century, as William Postell, (who first in 1538 transmitted to Paris a representation of a shekel in a wood-cut,) Arias Montanus (1572) and others. But with the publication of Francis Perez Bayer, archdeacon of Valentia, 'on Hebraic-Samaritan coins,' the road towards an accurate knowledge of Jewish coins was first commenced. Bayer had found means, during his travels in Spain and Italy, to collect a considerable number of these coins, and to arrange and interpret them with great ability. The illustrations also are produced in a most perfect manner. This book caused great excitement, as shortly before a German scholar, Olaf Gerhard Tychsen,' had endeavoured to point out the spuriousness of all the Jewish coins previously known.
  38. ↑ H. Gitler, Roman Coinages of Palestine, in W. Metcalf ed. Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, Oxford 2012, pp. 485–498. Quote from p.489: "These coins are the most famous of all ancient Jewish coins, but they were correctly attributed to the Jewish War only a few decades ago (based on the discovery of such coins in hoards along with other issues)."
  39. ↑ McLaren, James S. (2011-01-01), "Going to War against Rome: The Motivation of the Jewish Rebels", The Jewish Revolt against Rome, Brill, p. 148, ISBN 978-90-04-21669-3, retrieved 2025-04-25{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  40. 1 2 3 Silver shekel of the First Jewish Revolt from Rome in the British Museum
  41. ↑ Handbook of Biblical Numismatics pg 9
  42. ↑ Reifenberg, A. Ancient Jewish Coins, 1965, p.18
  43. ↑ Evans, 2011.
  44. ↑ Tareq A. Ramadan (Spring 2010). "A Jund Al-Urdun Arab-Byzantine coin bearing the term "FILS" in Arabic". Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society (202).
  45. 1 2 Tony Goodwin (22 January 2016). "The Arab-Byzantine coinage of Jund Filastin – a potential historical source". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. Cambridge University Press: 1–12.
  46. 1 2 3 Brodie, Neil (2023). "'Standing Caliph' coins from Syria: looted and on the market". 'To Aleppo Gone ...': Essays in honour of Jonathan Tubb (PDF). p. 173-178.
  47. 1 2 Schulze, Ingrid; Schulze, Wolfgang (2010). "The Standing Caliph Coins of al-Jazīra: some problems and suggestions". The Numismatic Chronicle (1966-). 170: 331-353. Cite error: The named reference "Schulze" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  48. ↑ Koehler, 2014, p. 90.
  49. 1 2 Flood 2001, p. 89 (see footnote 146).
  50. ↑ Abbasid Coins Minted in Palestine
  51. ↑ Gil, pp. 257-269.
  52. ↑ Azzopardi, 2006, p. 65.
  53. ↑ Crusader imitation of Ayyubid al-Salih Ismail silver half dirham, mint off flan (“Dimashq”), struck in Acre, 1250s AD
  54. ↑ Georganteli, 2012, p. 167.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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  1. ↑ Year 145 in the Seleucid era
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