User:Phlsph7/Agnosticism - History

History

Ancient and medieval

Although the term agnosticism was coined only in the 19th century, its theoretical roots lie in antiquity. In ancient Greece, the pre-Socratic philosopher Protagoras (c. 490 – c. 420 BCE) formulated an early form of agnosticism, arguing that the gods are veiled in uncertainty and questioning the possibility of objective knowledge. Socrates (c. 470 – c. 399 BCE), another forerunner, emphasized the limits of human knowledge, advocating humility and awareness of one's own ignorance. Ancient skepticism was another precursor, typically targeting knowledge in general rather than specifically knowledge of God. Pyrrho (c. 360 – c. 270 BCE) maintained that humans cannot reach certainty and recommended suspension of judgment over dogmatic belief as a way to achieve peace of mind. Pyrrhonian skepticism was later systematized by Sextus Empiricus (fl. around 200 CE), who examined how different arguments often lead to opposite conclusions, suggesting that people should remain neutral rather than take sides.

In ancient Hindu thought, agnostic ideas are found in the Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of Creation), a text from the Rigveda, composed in the 2nd millennium BCE. It questions whether knowledge of gods and the creation is possible. In the 6th century BCE, a broader skepticism, advanced by the school of Ajñana, challenged the possibility and usefulness of knowledge in general. Some agnostic themes, such as a skepticism about knowledge of ultimate reality, are also found in Buddhist philosophy, a tradition that arose roughly in the 6th century BCE, and in the thought of Confucius around 500 BCE.

In medieval Christian philosophy, Pseudo-Dionysius (5th or 6th century CE) formulated key ideas of negative theology, arguing that God transcends human concepts and understanding. The problem of negative theology also played a central role in the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE). He affirmed God's existence but adopted an agnostic attitude toward knowledge of God's nature, holding that representations of God's attributes are never fully adequate. Similarly, William of Ockham (c. 1287 – c. 1347 CE) argued that the human intellect is too limited to know God, contending that religious faith takes precedence over philosophical reason in theological matters. In Jewish philosophy, Maimonides (c. 1135–1204 CE) asserted that although God's existence can be known, the divine essence remains utterly unknowable, meaning that God can be described only in negative terms by stating what God is not.

Modern and contemporary

In early modern philosophy, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) argued that even if certain knowledge of God is impossible, one should nonetheless choose to believe because of potential practical benefits. Following an empiricist outlook, David Hume (1711–1776) held that knowledge of the world is limited to sensory experience, leading him to conclude that knowledge of a supernatural God is impossible. Inspired by Hume, Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) contended that human understanding is limited to the realm of appearances and cannot extend to things-in-themselves, which implies that the existence of God is not accessible to theoretical knowledge.

Sir William Hamilton (1788–1856) developed Kant's ideas about the nature of knowledge to defend agnosticism, maintaining that to understand something is to impose certain limits on it. He held that this process necessarily misconstrues God since God has no such limits, making accurate knowledge of the divine impossible. Drawing on Hamilton, Henry Longueville Mansel (1820–1871) concluded that reason can attain only relative knowledge while knowledge of the absolute is contradictory. For Mansel, the realm of theology lies beyond rational inquiry and depends on revelation and faith. Hamilton's thought also influenced Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), who sought a comprehensive philosophical system synthesizing science and religion. He held that an ultimate reality is responsible for phenomena while knowledge is limited to phenomena, with science dedicated to what is knowable and religion dedicated to what is unknowable.

Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term agnosticism.

Charles Darwin's (1809–1882) formulation of the theory of evolution was a key factor in the popularization of agnosticism as it undermined traditional religious teachings of a divine creator to explain the diversity of life. Influenced by Darwin, Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) coined the term agnosticism in a speech to the Metaphysical Society in 1869 as an alternative to theism and atheism. He understood it as a method of inquiry that refuses speculative conclusions when decisive evidence is lacking, applying it specifically to theological and metaphysical problems.

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) explored how agnosticism can be combined with belief in God. He proposed a leap of faith, arguing that what matters for religion is an inward passion even when there is no objective certainty. Influenced by scientific naturalism, George Eliot (1819–1880) rejected orthodox Christian doctrine and adopted an agnostic outlook instead. In his repudiation of Christian belief, William Kingdon Clifford (1845–1879) formulated Clifford's principle, stating that it is always wrong to believe without sufficient evidence. William James (1842–1910) challenged this principle from a pragmatist perspective. He maintained there can be practical reasons to believe in the absence of decisive evidence and that the goal of avoiding errors must be balanced against the risk of missing momentous truths. Leslie Weatherhead (1893–1976) proposed a form of Christian agnosticism as a response to the clash between scriptural doctrine and the realities of modern life.

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) defended a form of agnosticism inclined to atheism, holding that there is no decisive evidence for or against God's existence. Responding to Russell's ideas, Richard Dawkins (born 1941) argued that the lack of evidence calls for disbelief rather than suspension of judgment. He proposed a New Atheism focused on scientific rigor. In turn, authors like J. L. Schellenberg (born 1959) and Robin Le Poidevin (born 1962) formulated a "new agnosticism" that can exist alongside religious faith and practice.

Arguing from the perspective of logical positivism, A. J. Ayer (1910–1989) maintained that utterances about God are meaningless. Consequently, he attacked theism, atheism, and agnosticism for their shared assumption that they disagree about a substantive issue. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) characterized faith as a form of life rather than a theoretical conclusion, meaning that it is not primarily about accurately representing reality or tracking evidence. Influenced by Aquinas, Anthony Kenny (born 1931) formulated a comprehensive defense of agnosticism, focusing on the lack of solid evidence, flaws in arguments about God's existence, contradictory elements in divine attributes, and meaninglessness of religious language. Alvin Plantinga (born 1932) suggested that belief in God may be a fundamental belief that does not require justification through external evidence, similar to how people typically trust their perceptions without demanding additional external verification.

References

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