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Education financing in Ghana

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Education financing in Ghana refers to the ways financial resources are raised, distributed, and used to support education across basic, secondary, and tertiary levels. Since independence in 1957, education has been widely viewed as central to national development, labour productivity, social mobility, and state-building.[1] Ghana’s education system is funded primarily through public expenditure, although household contributions, statutory funds, donor support, and private providers also contribute to access and institutional development.[2]

Over recent decades, Ghana has often been recognised as one of the stronger education spenders within Sub-Saharan Africa, particularly through commitments to universal basic education and expanded secondary access. However, education financing continues to be shaped by wider economic pressures, including inflation, debt-servicing obligations, fiscal adjustment, demographic growth, and changing political priorities. As enrolment has expanded, attention has increasingly shifted from access alone towards quality, sustainability, efficiency, and equity.

Education financing in Ghana is also linked to wider debates around state welfare provision, domestic and international funding, and the extent to which household and private contributions affect educational inequality. Reforms such as the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund) and Free Senior High School (Free SHS) have significantly changed financing structures, although debate continues over how effectively these policies balance inclusion with long-term fiscal sustainability.[3][4]

Research suggests that the central challenge in Ghana is not only the overall level of education spending, but also how predictable, equitable, and efficient financial allocation is across the sector. Limitations in data transparency, differences between reporting systems, and difficulties in measuring indirect household expenditure continue to shape understanding of education financing outcomes.

Historical background

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At independence in 1957, Ghana treated education as a central part of national development and state-building. Public investment expanded rapidly, particularly within primary and basic education, reflecting broader postcolonial commitments to welfare provision and widening access.

During the 1960s and 1970s, growth in infrastructure, teacher recruitment, and public provision increased participation in formal schooling. However, this model became harder to sustain as economic instability deepened. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, inflation, weakened revenues, and broader fiscal constraints placed pressure on social spending, including education.

Structural adjustment programmes introduced during the 1980s under the IMF and World Bank reshaped public financing.[5] Fiscal stabilisation and tighter expenditure controls increased household cost-sharing and reduced state flexibility in education spending.

The long-term effects remain debated. Critics argue that adjustment widened inequality by shifting costs onto poorer households, while others argue that macroeconomic stabilisation improved fiscal discipline and institutional recovery.

By the 1990s, Ghana renewed investment in education through domestic reforms and international partnerships. Later reforms, including the establishment of GETFund in 2001 and Free SHS in 2017, expanded financing commitments and widened access, while also raising concerns over affordability and sustainability.

The development of education financing in Ghana therefore reflects wider shifts in state capacity, economic restructuring, and changing political priorities.

Composition of education financing

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Education financing in Ghana is drawn from multiple sources, with government expenditure remaining the largest contributor. Public financing supports teacher salaries, infrastructure development, administrative systems, curriculum implementation, school grants, and broader institutional management across different educational levels.[6]

One of the most significant statutory mechanisms is the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund), established in 2001 and financed partly through a dedicated value-added tax levy.[7] GETFund has played a prominent role in supporting infrastructure development, student loans, tertiary expansion, and capital-intensive education projects.[8] Its role is often associated with improved institutional capacity, particularly in higher education, although debates remain regarding allocation transparency and political influence over project prioritisation.

Households also remain deeply embedded within the financing structure. Although Ghana has pursued policies aimed at reducing financial barriers, families continue to finance substantial indirect and out-of-pocket educational costs.[9] These may include transport, uniforms, books, examination fees, supplementary tutoring, boarding-related expenses, digital access, and informal educational support. Such expenditures can be particularly significant for lower-income households and may influence participation, retention, and perceived educational quality.

Private sector involvement has also expanded, especially in urban areas. Independent schools, private educational providers, faith-based institutions, and investment partnerships increasingly contribute to educational provision.[10] This reflects wider trends of diversification and partial privatisation across parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. Some analysts view private provision as expanding choice and relieving pressure on public systems, while others raise concerns regarding inequality and uneven access.

International assistance has historically complemented domestic financing, particularly during reform periods. Donors including UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, bilateral agencies, and other development partners have supported literacy initiatives, infrastructure, teacher development, school feeding programmes, and policy implementation. However, aid typically represents a smaller share of total education financing compared with domestic public expenditure.[11]

Assessing the precise composition of financing remains difficult. Private and household expenditures are often underreported, donor disbursement data may vary across reporting systems, and some project-level expenditure channels remain incomplete. As a result, education financing estimates in Ghana are frequently interpreted as indicative rather than exact.

(1) Line graph showing government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP in Ghana, 2000–2022. Recreated using World Bank Data (UNESCO Institute for Statistics).

Figure 1. Government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP in Ghana, 2000–2022. Source: World Bank Data (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). This indicator reflects public expenditure on education relative to national GDP and does not indicate how spending is distributed across educational levels or regions.[12]


(2) Government expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure in Ghana (2000–2022)

Figure 2. Government expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure in Ghana, 2000–2022. Source: World Bank Data (UNESCO Institute for Statistics). This indicator shows the share of total public expenditure allocated to education and reflects budgetary priority rather than overall economic size.[13]

Government spending on education

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Government expenditure remains central to Ghana’s education financing model. Public funding supports salaries, infrastructure, curriculum delivery, learning materials, administration, and wider sector expansion. Education is often discussed as a key part of social spending and long-term economic development.

Ghana is frequently described as a comparatively strong education spender within Sub-Saharan Africa.[14] However, spending levels fluctuate according to economic growth, inflation, exchange rates, debt obligations, and changing fiscal priorities.

Education spending is commonly measured through indicators such as expenditure as a percentage of GDP, expenditure as a percentage of total government expenditure, and per-student allocation. While useful, each provides only partial insight.[15] GDP-based indicators do not always reflect political commitment, while budget-share indicators do not show how effectively resources are distributed.

A major issue concerns the wage bill, as teacher compensation absorbs a substantial proportion of Ghana’s education budget.[16] While salaries are essential for staffing and retention, particularly in rural areas, high recurrent costs can reduce flexibility for infrastructure, technology, and learning materials.

Another challenge lies in balancing expansion with quality. Enrolment growth can widen access; however, sustaining educational quality requires long-term investment in classrooms, training, and institutional capacity.[17] Where enrolment rises faster than real expenditure, resources per student are likely to decline.

Spending distribution across educational levels also remains debated. Basic education has historically received priority, while secondary and tertiary education have become increasingly resource-intensive.[18]

In addition to spending quantities, efficiency remains central. Delays in disbursement, procurement weaknesses, and uneven regional allocation can affect service delivery even where spending levels appear strong. As a result, debate increasingly focuses not only on expenditure, but also on sustainability, efficiency, and equity.

Education aid

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International assistance has played an important, though comparatively smaller, role in Ghana’s education financing structure. Donors including UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and bilateral agencies have supported literacy programmes, infrastructure, teacher development, and broader sector reforms.[19]

Aid has often been particularly important during periods of expansion or institutional reform.[20] In some cases, external funding has supported technical capacity, planning, and targeted interventions that domestic budgets may not have fully covered.

However, aid dependence remains debated. External financing can supplement limited domestic resources, but donor priorities, fluctuating commitments, and uneven disbursement can reduce predictability.[21] Due to aid commitments not always corresponding to actual spending, its precise contribution to education financing is difficult to assess.

As a result, aid is generally viewed as complementary rather than central to Ghana’s education financing model, with domestic public expenditure remaining the dominant source of long-term sector funding.

Debt servicing and education

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Education financing in Ghana is closely linked to wider macroeconomic pressures, particularly public debt and fiscal constraints. As debt obligations increase, governments may face reduced flexibility in allocating resources across social sectors.[22]

Debt servicing can affect education indirectly by limiting broader fiscal space.[23] Where a larger share of public revenue is directed towards debt repayment, fewer resources may be available for infrastructure, teacher development, or quality-enhancing investment.[24]

This relationship remains complex. Debt does not automatically reduce education spending, and direct causal links are difficult to isolate. However, scholars frequently examine debt servicing within wider debates around fiscal sustainability, development priorities, and long-term public investment.

In Ghana, rising debt pressures have strengthened discussion around how macroeconomic stability interacts with social expenditure and educational development.[25]

(3) This graph compares debt servicing and education expenditure trends in Ghana between 2014 and 2022, illustrating broader fiscal pressures on public spending.

Figure 3. Debt service and education expenditure indicators in Ghana, 2014–2022. Sources: World Bank International Debt Statistics and World Bank Data/UNESCO Institute for Statistics. The indicators use different denominators, so the graph should be read as a comparison of trends rather than a direct measure of causation or budget trade-offs.

IMF and World Bank conditionalities

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Ghana has repeatedly engaged with IMF and World Bank-supported programmes, particularly during periods of fiscal instability. These interventions are often linked to debates around state capacity, public spending, and economic restructuring.

Structural adjustment policies introduced during the 1980s reduced state expenditure flexibility and increased household cost-sharing in some areas of education.[26] Critics argue this widened inequality and weakened access for lower-income groups, while others argue that macroeconomic stabilisation improved fiscal discipline and institutional recovery.

More recent IMF-supported reforms have also shaped debate around public expenditure restraint, debt sustainability, and social spending priorities.[27] Although these programmes are broader than education policy itself, they remain relevant because education financing depends heavily on wider fiscal conditions.

As a result, IMF and World Bank involvement is often discussed within broader questions of sovereignty, adjustment, and the relationship between macroeconomic reform and welfare provision.[28]

Illicit financial flows and domestic resource mobilisation

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Illicit financial flows (IFFs) have become increasingly important in discussions of education financing and domestic revenue mobilisation.[29] Broadly, IFFs refer to illegal, concealed, or improperly transferred cross-border financial movements, often linked to tax abuse, corruption, profit shifting, and wider financial opacity.

In policy discussions, IFFs are often viewed as lost fiscal resources that could otherwise support public services such as education, healthcare, and infrastructure.[30] In Ghana, these debates are particularly relevant because education financing is closely connected to wider issues of revenue generation, public debt, and dependence on external funding.

At the same time, the measurement of IFFs remains contested. Many estimates rely on modelling assumptions and indirect calculations rather than directly measurable totals.[31] Critics argue that such figures may highlight structural concerns, but should not be treated as exact measures of recoverable public revenue.

Despite these limitations, IFF debates remain important because they connect education financing to wider issues of taxation, governance, and fiscal independence.[32]

Historical impacts of cuts to education funding

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Reductions in education funding have historically shaped debates around access, quality, and institutional capacity in Ghana.[33] Periods of fiscal constraint have affected infrastructure maintenance, staffing, and the pace of educational expansion.

Where spending has tightened, schools may face overcrowding, delayed investment, or reduced flexibility in supporting learning materials and broader quality improvements.[34][35] However, the effects of funding cuts vary depending on wider reforms, population growth, and policy priorities.

Due to educational outcomes being influenced by multiple overlapping factors, direct attribution remains difficult. Nevertheless, historical reductions in funding are often discussed within broader concerns over sustainability, inequality, and long-term development.

Major policy reform: Free Senior High School

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The introduction of the Free Senior High School (Free SHS) policy in 2017 marked one of the most significant changes to Ghana’s education financing structure since independence.[36] By removing tuition fees in public secondary schools, the policy aimed to widen access, reduce household financial pressure, and improve educational inclusion.[37]

Government reports and policy analyses have linked the reform to substantial enrolment growth, often seen as evidence of previously unmet demand for secondary education. For many households, particularly lower-income families, the removal of tuition fees reduced a major financial barrier to continued schooling.

At the same time, the long-term sustainability of Free SHS remains widely debated.[38] The policy significantly increased recurrent expenditure commitments, particularly in relation to staffing, feeding programmes, infrastructure, boarding costs, administration, and classroom capacity.

Rapid enrolment growth also created implementation challenges. In some schools, overcrowding and infrastructure strain contributed to the temporary introduction of the double-track system, in which students attended in alternating academic cycles to manage capacity limitations.[39] While presented as a short-term response to rising enrolment, concerns were raised regarding instructional time, learning quality, and overall system efficiency.[40]

Its impact on equity remains contested. Some studies suggest that Free SHS improved participation among lower-income groups by reducing formal financial barriers. Others note that indirect costs, including transport, uniforms, digital access, and supplementary educational expenses, continue to affect access.[41]

As a result, Free SHS is widely described as a major expansionary reform whose long-term significance remains closely tied to sustainability, quality, and distributive equity.

Equity considerations

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Education financing in Ghana is closely tied to debates around inequality, particularly across income, gender, and regional divides.[42] Although access has expanded, financial distribution and educational outcomes remain uneven.

Regional disparities remain especially significant. Northern regions have historically recorded lower literacy rates, weaker infrastructure, and lower educational attainment than southern regions, reflecting wider inequalities in development and public investment.[43]

Household costs also continue to affect access. Even where tuition barriers have been reduced, indirect expenses such as transport, uniforms, books, digital access, and private tutoring can disproportionately affect lower-income households.

Rural-urban differences further shape inequality. Urban areas generally have stronger infrastructure, teacher availability, and institutional capacity, while rural communities may face longer travel distances and fewer educational resources.[44]


As a result, education financing is increasingly discussed not only in terms of spending volume, but also distribution, inclusion, and long-term equity.

(4) This graph highlights regional inequality in educational outcomes, showing significantly lower literacy rates in selected northern regions compared with southern Ghana.

Figure 4. Literacy rates in selected northern and southern regions of Ghana. Source: Ghana Statistical Service, 2021 Population and Housing Census. The graph illustrates regional disparities in literacy, with selected northern regions recording substantially lower literacy rates than southern regions.[45]



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Climate change has become increasingly relevant in discussions of education financing, particularly in relation to fiscal resilience, infrastructure vulnerability, and long-term development planning.[46]

Flooding, extreme weather events, environmental degradation, and displacement can affect school systems through damaged infrastructure, temporary closures, and increased reconstruction costs. These pressures may create unplanned fiscal burdens, particularly where resources are already limited.

Climate-related disruption can also affect economic growth, agricultural productivity, and domestic revenues, indirectly influencing the state’s ability to sustain long-term investment in education.

However, estimating the direct financial impact of climate pressures on education remains difficult, as country-specific evidence is relatively limited. As a result, climate pressures are increasingly viewed as an emerging issue within education financing and resilience planning.

Data limitations

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Assessing education financing in Ghana requires careful interpretation of available data. Differences between national administrative reporting and internationally harmonised datasets such as UNESCO, World Bank, and OECD records can produce variation in reported totals.

Private and household expenditure also remain difficult to measure accurately. Informal payments, transport costs, digital access, and other indirect expenses may be underreported, meaning that the full financial burden of education is not always reflected in official estimates.

Donor financing adds further complexity, as commitments do not always correspond directly to disbursements. In addition, national-level indicators may obscure inequalities between districts, schools, and regions.

For these reasons, education finance data are often treated as indicative rather than exact, particularly when assessing long-term trends and policy outcomes.

Ongoing debates

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Several issues continue to shape debate around education financing in Ghana. These include spending adequacy, fiscal sustainability, donor dependence, distributional inequality, and efficiency in resource allocation.[47]

A recurring question concerns whether rising expenditure should prioritise expanding access or improving educational quality. Others focus on balancing secondary and tertiary investment with early childhood and basic education.

As economic pressures, demographic growth, and climate risks continue to evolve, education financing remains closely tied to wider discussions of governance, state capacity, and development strategy.[48]

Conclusion

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Education financing in Ghana reflects the complexities of sustaining educational expansion within real fiscal constraints. While public expenditure remains central, household costs, donor assistance, statutory funds, and wider macroeconomic conditions continue to shape how resources are raised, allocated, and experienced.

Reforms such as GETFund and Free SHS have widened access and reshaped financing structures, but long-term questions around sustainability, equity, efficiency, and quality remain central.

As a result, education financing in Ghana is widely understood not only as a budgetary issue, but also as part of broader debates around development, governance, and social inclusion.

Further Reading

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  • ActionAid (2021) The Public versus Austerity: Why Public Spending Matters for Education.
  • Addai, I. (2022) ‘Determinants of household expenditure on education in Ghana’, Journal of African Economies.
  • Akyeampong, K. (2009) ‘Revisiting free compulsory universal basic education in Ghana’, Comparative Education.
  • Akyeampong, K. (2011) Equity in Education Financing in Ghana.
  • Atuahene, F. (2013) ‘The Ghana Education Trust Fund and financing tertiary education’, Higher Education Studies.
  • Canagarajah, S. and Ye, X. (2001) Public Health and Education Spending in Ghana.
  • Konadu-Agyemang, K. (2000) ‘Structural adjustment programs and uneven development in Africa’, Professional Geographer.
  • Lewin, K. (2007) Financing Secondary Education in Developing Countries.
  • Ministry of Education (2019) Education Strategic Plan 2018–2030.
  • OECD (2022) Creditor Reporting System.
  • Tax Justice Network (2021) State of Tax Justice.
  • Thompson, N. and Casely-Hayford, L. (2008) The Financing and Outcomes of Education in Ghana.
  • UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
  • UNICEF (2022) Climate Risk and Education Disruption in West Africa.
  • World Bank (2004) Books, Buildings and Learning Outcomes: Education Reform in Ghana.
  • World Bank (2020) Ghana Secondary Education Improvement Project.

Citations

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  1. ↑ White, Howard Nial (2004-10). "Books, Buildings, and Learning Outcomes". doi:10.1596/0-8213-5884-7. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ↑ "World Education Indicators 2005". World Education Indicators. 2005-10-13. doi:10.1787/wei-2005-en. ISSN 1999-1541.
  3. ↑ Alorkpa, Anthony; Mugala, Alex (2026). "Advancing Teacher Education through the Free Senior High School (Free SHS) Policy in Ghana: An Integrated Framework of Learning Theories". International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation. 13 (2): 1813–1825. doi:10.51244/ijrsi.2026.130200168. ISSN 2321-2705.
  4. ↑ -, Thomas A. Agana; -, Cuthbert Baataar; -, Ismail Saani (2025-01-10). "A qualitative assessment of the Free Senior High School (Free SHS) Policy on Education in the Upper West Region of Ghana". International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research. 7 (1). doi:10.36948/ijfmr.2025.v07i01.34247. ISSN 2582-2160. {{cite journal}}: |last= has numeric name (help)
  5. ↑ Konadu-Agyemang, Kwadwo (2000-08-01). "The Best of Times and the Worst of Times: Structural Adjustment Programs and Uneven Development in Africa: The Case Of Ghana". The Professional Geographer. 52 (3): 469–483. doi:10.1111/0033-0124.00239. ISSN 0033-0124.
  6. ↑ Balsera, Ron (27 August 2025). "Costing and financing the teaching profession. A strategic investment in education".
  7. ↑ Francis Atuahene (2009-10-01). "Financing Higher Education through Value Added Tax: A Review of the Contribution of the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund) in Fulfilment of the Objectives of Act 581". Journal of Higher Education in Africa. 7 (3): 29–60. doi:10.57054/jhea.v7i3.1594. ISSN 0851-7762.
  8. ↑ "We've successfully delivered 3,077 infrastructure projects between 2017 and 2024 – GETFund". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  9. ↑ Akoto, Francisca A. (2024-08-20). "Is Education Free in Ghana? Policies & Challenges (2026)". Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  10. ↑ "The Role of the Private Sector in Education Expansion • Sociology.Institute". 2025-11-19. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  11. ↑ "Aid at the crossroads: Trends in official development assistance".
  12. ↑ "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  13. ↑ "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  14. ↑ Semako Gbesoevi, Emmanuel (April 2025). "Comparative Analysis of Education Funding Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications on Education Outcomes".
  15. ↑ "MEDIUM-TERM EXPENDITURE FRAMEWORK (MTEF) FOR 2025-2028" (PDF). {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
  16. ↑ "UNICEF Ghana Budget Briefs - 2025 | UNICEF Ghana". www.unicef.org. 2025-11-25. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  17. ↑ GNA (2025-03-25). "Access to education rises, but quality shows fluctuations – Report". Ghana News Agency. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  18. ↑ Buabeng, Isaac (November–December 2024). "Prioritization of Secondary Education Over Basic Education in Ghana: The Gains and Losses" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  19. ↑ "Partners & Donors - Early Learning Partnership". World Bank. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  20. ↑ Fentahun, Getachew (2023-12-31). "Foreign aid in the post-colonial Africa: Means for building democracy or ensuring Western domination?". Cogent Social Sciences. 9 (1): 2241257. doi:10.1080/23311886.2023.2241257.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  21. ↑ "Global Aid and External Funding in Education: Opportunities and Challenges • Teachers Institute". 2025-11-23. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  22. ↑ SpyDa (2025-06-18). "Ghana's Education Financing Improves but Falls Short of International Standards – Eduwatch". Ghana News Online. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  23. ↑ Awadzie, David Mensah; Garr, David Kwashie; Zotoo, Isidore Komla; Marfo, Mensah (2025-09-01). "The sustainability of budget deficit and public debt on Ghanaian economy growth: The government intertemporal budget". Urban Governance. 5 (3): 363–371. doi:10.1016/j.ugj.2025.05.002. ISSN 2664-3286.
  24. ↑ "Financing constraints on the right to education – what is the role of debt?". Amnesty International. 2024-03-18. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  25. ↑ "Ghana's Public Debt crisis: Lessons for the present and the future". April 2024.
  26. ↑ Otenasek, Blake (2024-12-16). "Structural Adjustment in Ghana: A Turning Point in Economic Reform". African Histories at Wake Forest.
  27. ↑ "Ghana exits IMF bailout programme, moves to policy coordination framework". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  28. ↑ Mahlangu, Jacob (May 2025). "The influence of the IMF and World Bank on national sovereignty".
  29. ↑ "Illicit Financial Flows (IFFs)". World Bank. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  30. ↑ ECA, UNCTAD. "REPORT ON ILLICIT FINANCIAL FLOWS FROM AFRICA" (PDF).
  31. ↑ "Statistical Measurement of illicit financial flows in Ghana" (PDF). {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
  32. ↑ "Financing education through fiscal justice: A human rights imperative". 16th April 2026. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ↑ "The History of Educational Funding: Models, Debates and Policies in an International Perspective (1800-2000) (2018-2023)". Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  34. ↑ "The Crisis in Ghana's Education System: Addressing Misguided Policies and Negligence by Education Minister and PP Government". Modern Ghana. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  35. ↑ Osai, Joycelyn Adwoa; Amponsah, Kwaku Darko; Ampadu, Ernest; Commey-Mintah, Priscilla (2021-06-30). "TEACHERS' EXPERIENCES WITH OVERCROWDED CLASSROOMS IN A BASIC SCHOOL IN GHANA". International Online Journal of Primary Education (IOJPE). 10 (1): 73–88. ISSN 1300-915X.
  36. ↑ Mahcap (2025-01-10). "Mahcap | Ghana's Free SHS Policy: Effectiveness, Efficiency and Way Forward". Mahcap. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  37. ↑ "Reviewing the Free-SHS Policy: Balancing access, quality, infrastructure needs". Graphic Online. 2025-03-20. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  38. ↑ "Evaluating sustainability of free SHS policy". Graphic Online. 2025-07-02. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  39. ↑ Adjei, Enoch Ampofo (2021-01). Exploring the Challenges of Double-Track Schools and their Coping Strategies by School Management in Selected Senior High Schools in the Eastern Region of Ghana (Thesis thesis). University of Cape Coast. {{cite thesis}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ↑ Poku, Adjoa Afriyie. "Effects of Increasing Student Enrolment on Teaching and Learning in Senior High Schools in Ghana: The Free Senior High School Policy in Retrospection". doi:10.21203/RS.3.RS-2007658/V1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  41. ↑ Akuffo, Aboabea Gertrude (2025-07-01). "In pursuit of equity in upper secondary education: the curious case of Ghana's free senior high school policy". The Australian Educational Researcher. 52 (3): 2255–2280. doi:10.1007/s13384-025-00810-y. ISSN 2210-5328.
  42. ↑ Afoakwah, Clifford (13 December 2022). "Reforms and education inequality in Ghana".
  43. ↑ "The Contrast in Literacy Rates: A Regional Overview • Teachers Institute". 2025-09-03. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  44. ↑ "Ghana: Unequal Access: The Struggle for Quality Education in Ghana's Rural Communities". ishr.org. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  45. ↑ data, 2021 Population And Housing Census-Ghana Statisical Service importance of. "2021 Population and Housing Census". census2021.statsghana.gov.gh. Retrieved 2026-05-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  46. ↑ "How to finance climate-smart education: Launching an evidence review and a costing framework tool | Blog | Global Partnership for Education". www.globalpartnership.org. 2023-12-04. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  47. ↑ "ActionAid Ghana and Partners Outdoor Education Financing Tracker to address expenditure and revenue complexities in Ghana's Basic Education sector. | ActionAid Ghana". ghana.actionaid.org. 2024-09-11. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
  48. ↑ "Demography and climate change: new study explores links between the two mega-trends of our century - Joint Research Centre". joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu. 2023-12-11. Retrieved 2026-05-26.
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