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TII

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Superconductive behavior under varying magnetic field and temperature. The graph shows magnetic flux density B as a function of absolute temperature T. Critical magnetic flux densities BC1 and BC2 and the critical temperature TC are labeled. In the lower region of this graph, both type-I and type-II superconductors display the Meissner effect (a). A mixed state (b), in which some field lines are captured in magnetic field vortices, occurs only in type-II superconductors within a limited region of the graph. Beyond this region, the superconductive property breaks down, and the material behaves as a normal conductor (c).
Quantum vortices in a 200-nm-thick YBCO film imaged by scanning SQUID microscopy[1]
  • Superconductivity: Ginzburg-Landau theory and vortex lattice (Chakraborty 2025)

A type-II superconductor is a material that transitions from a superconducting to a normal state through an intermediate mixed state (also known as the vortex state or Abrikosov state) as the external magnetic field increases. In this state, magnetic field lines penetrate the material in microscopic flux tubes called vortices. At the center of each vortex, superconductivity is suppressed, while the surrounding bulk remains superconducting.

Type-II superconductors are characterized by a London penetration depth that is larger than the superconducting coherence length, resulting in a negative interfacial energy between the normal and superconducting phases. While pure elements are often type-I superconductors, alloys and complex compounds are typically type-II. High-temperature superconductors are also typically type-II.

Type-II superconductors are used in applications in which superconductors act as electromagnets, since their critical fields are typically higher than those of type-I superconductors. This allows them to remain in a superconducting state in the intense magnetic fields required for technologies like MRI machines and particle accelerators.

Description

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Unlike type-I superconductors, which have a single critical magnetic field at which superconductivity is suppressed, type-II superconductors possess two critical fields, Hc1 and Hc2. At external fields below the lower critical field Hc1, the material exhibits a complete Meissner effect, expelling all magnetic flux from its interior. At magnetic fields above the upper critical field Hc2, superconductivity is fully suppressed.[2][3]

At intermediate fields, Hc1 < H < Hc2, magnetic field can partially penetrate into the superconductor in the form of quantized vortices, which consist of lines of normal cores surrounded by superconducting currents. Apart from these vortex cores, the material remains superconducting.

At fields just above Hc1, the distance between the vortices is large compared to their size. Close to Hc2, the vortices are closely packed and form a regular lattice. In isotropic materials, the vortex lattice is hexagonal, but the lattice structure of the material can favor a square lattice.

History

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The existence of two critical fields in superconducting alloys was experimentally observed by Wander Johannes De Haas and J. Voogd in 1929–1931, and confirmed by multiple authors working with different materials over the following years. However, the sample inhomogeneities in these early studies were poorly controlled, and it was assumed that the effect might be explained by structural inhomogenuities which would lead to a formation of a thin filamentary superconducting network. In 1936, Lev Shubnikov, Vladimir Khotkevich, Georgy Shepelev and Yuri Rjabinin produced high-quality single-crystal samples and concluded that the effect was a bulk phenomenon, thus ruling out structural inhomogeneity as the cause. The following year, Shubnikov was executed during Stalin's purges, and although the results were published, they remained largely unknown for the next 25 years.[4][5]

In 1950, the theory of the two types of superconductors was developed by Lev Landau and Vitaly Ginzburg in their paper on Ginzburg–Landau theory.[6] In their argument, a type-I superconductor had positive free energy of the superconductor-normal metal boundary. The existence of the negative interface energy was also known since the mid-1930s from the early works by the London brothers. Ginzburg and Landau pointed out the possibility of type-II superconductors that should form inhomogeneous state in strong magnetic fields. However, at that time, all known superconductors were type-I, and they commented that there was no experimental motivation to consider precise structure of type-II superconducting state. The theory for the behavior of the type-II superconducting state in magnetic field was greatly improved by Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov,[7] who was elaborating on the ideas by Lars Onsager and Richard Feynman of quantum vortices in superfluids. Abrikosov compared his vortex lattice theory to Shubnikov's 1936 experiments and found a good fit.[8] Quantum vortex solution in a superconductor is also very closely related to Fritz London's work on magnetic flux quantization in superconductors. The Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the theory of type-II superconductivity in 2003.[9]

In 1952 an observation of type-II superconductivity was also reported by Zavaritskii. Fritz London demonstrated [10][11] that a magnetic flux can penetrate a superconductor via a topological defect that has integer phase winding and carries quantized magnetic flux. Onsager and Feynman demonstrated that quantum vortices should form in superfluids.[12][13]

A 1957 paper by A. A. Abrikosov[7] generalizes these ideas. In the limit of very short coherence length the vortex solution is identical to London's fluxoid,[11] where the vortex core is approximated by a sharp cutoff rather than a gradual vanishing of superconducting condensate near the vortex center. Abrikosov found that the vortices arrange themselves into a regular array known as a vortex lattice.[9] Near a so-called upper critical magnetic field, the problem of a superconductor in an external field is equivalent to the problem of vortex state in a rotating superfluid, discussed by Lars Onsager and Richard Feynman.

Vortex state

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Ginzburg–Landau theory has two characteristic lengths: the superconducting coherence length ξ is the length scale at which the order parameter restores its bulk value around a perturbation; the London penetration depth is the length scale at which the magnetic field decays inside the superconductor. The relative size of these two lengths determines the behaviour of the superconductor in a magnetic field. For type-II superconductor, , which leads to a negative surface energy between the superconducting and normal phases. A negative interface energy suggests that the system should be unstable against maximizing the number of such interfaces.

Flux pinning

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Position memory due to vortex pinning in a high temperature superconductor

In the vortex state, a phenomenon known as flux pinning becomes possible. This is not possible with type-I superconductors, since they cannot be penetrated by magnetic fields.[14]

(Finite resistance, Annett p.94)

(Hysteresis)

If a superconductor is cooled in a field, the field can be trapped, which can allow the superconductor to be suspended over a magnet, with the potential for a frictionless joint or bearing. The worth of flux pinning is seen through many implementations such as lifts, frictionless joints, and transportation. The thinner the superconducting layer, the stronger the pinning that occurs when exposed to magnetic fields.

Materials

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Type-II superconductors are usually made of metal alloys or complex oxide ceramics. All high-temperature superconductors are type-II superconductors. While most elemental superconductors are type-I, niobium, vanadium, and technetium are elemental type-II superconductors. Boron-doped diamond and silicon are also type-II superconductors. Metal alloy superconductors can also exhibit type-II behavior (e.g., niobium–titanium, one of the most common superconductors in applied superconductivity), as well as intermetallic compounds like niobium–tin.

Other type-II examples are the cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials which have achieved the highest superconducting critical temperatures. These include La1.85Ba0.15CuO4, BSCCO, and YBCO (Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide), which is famous as the first material to achieve superconductivity above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K). Due to strong vortex pinning, the cuprates are close to ideally hard superconductors.

Important uses

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Diamagnetism in type-I and type-II superconductors. The upper critical field in type-II superconductors can be much later than the critical field in type-I superconductors.

Strong superconducting electromagnets (used in MRI scanners, NMR machines, and particle accelerators) often use coils wound of niobium-titanium wires or, for higher fields, niobium-tin wires. These materials are type-II superconductors with substantial upper critical field Hc2, and in contrast to, for example, the cuprate superconductors with even higher Hc2, they can be easily machined into wires. Recently, however, 2nd generation superconducting tapes are allowing replacement of cheaper niobium-based wires with much more expensive, but superconductive at much higher temperatures and magnetic fields "2nd generation" tapes.

References

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  1. ↑ Wells, Frederick S.; Pan, Alexey V.; Wang, X. Renshaw; Fedoseev, Sergey A.; Hilgenkamp, Hans (2015). "Analysis of low-field isotropic vortex glass containing vortex groups in YBa2Cu3O7−x thin films visualized by scanning SQUID microscopy". Scientific Reports. 5 8677. arXiv:1807.06746. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5.8677W. doi:10.1038/srep08677. PMC 4345321. PMID 25728772.
  2. ↑ Grissonanche, G.; et al. (2014). "Direct measurement of the upper critical field in cuprate superconductors". Nature Communications. 5 3280. arXiv:1303.3856. doi:10.1038/ncomms4280.
  3. ↑ Tinkham, M. (1996). Introduction to Superconductivity, Second Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0486435032.
  4. ↑ Shepelev, Anatoly; Larbalestier, David (2011-10-25). "The discovery of type II superconductors". CERN Courier. Retrieved 2026-05-07.
  5. ↑ Shepelev, A. (2022). "About experimental discovery of type II superconductivity" (PDF). Problems of Atomic Science and Technology: 217–218. doi:10.46813/2022-137-217. Retrieved 2026-05-07.
  6. ↑ Ginzburg, V.L. and Landau, L.D. (1950) Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 20, 1064
  7. 1 2 Abrikosov, A. A. (1957). On the magnetic properties of superconductors of the second group. Soviet Physics-JETP, 5, 1174-1182.
  8. ↑ Abrikosov, A. A. (2004-12-02). "Nobel Lecture: Type-II superconductors and the vortex lattice". Reviews of Modern Physics. 76 (3): 975–979. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.975. ISSN 0034-6861.
  9. 1 2 A. A. Abrikosov, "Type II superconductors and the vortex lattice", Nobel Lecture, December 8, 2003
  10. ↑ London, F. (1948-09-01). "On the Problem of the Molecular Theory of Superconductivity". Physical Review. 74 (5): 562–573. Bibcode:1948PhRv...74..562L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.74.562.
  11. 1 2 London, Fritz (1961). Superfluids (2nd ed.). New York: Dover.
  12. ↑ Onsager, L. (March 1949). "Statistical hydrodynamics". Il Nuovo Cimento. 6 (S2): 279–287. Bibcode:1949NCim....6S.279O. doi:10.1007/BF02780991. ISSN 0029-6341. S2CID 186224016.
  13. ↑ Feynman, R.P. (1955), "Application of Quantum Mechanics to Liquid Helium", in WP Halperin (ed.), Progress in Low Temperature Physics, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 17–53, doi:10.1016/s0079-6417(08)60077-3, ISBN 978-0-444-53307-4 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  14. ↑ Rosen, J., Ph.D., & Quinn, L. "Superconductivity". In K. Cullen (ed.), Encyclopedia of physical science.

Literature

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F

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Map of the Roman Empire and surrounding peoples in AD 125. The map shows two possible locations of the Fenni, based on possible readings of Tacitus (Livonia) and Ptolemy (upper Vistula river). Another location given by Ptolemy, in northern Scandinavia, is not shown as the map does not cover that region

The Fenni were an ancient people of northeastern Europe, first described by Cornelius Tacitus in Germania in AD 98.

Ancient accounts

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The Fenni are first mentioned by Cornelius Tacitus in Germania in 98 A.D. Their location is uncertain, due to the vagueness of Tacitus' account: "The Venedi overrun in their predatory excursions all the woody and mountainous tracts between the Peucini and the Fenni".[1][2]

Tacitus describes the Fenni as follows:[1]

In wonderful savageness live the nation of the Fenni, and in beastly poverty, destitute of arms, of horses, and of homes; their food, the common herbs; their apparel, skins; their bed, the earth; their only hope in their arrows, which for want of iron they point with bones. Their common support they have from the chase, women as well as men; for with these the former wander up and down, and crave a portion of the prey. Nor other shelter have they even for their babes, against the violence of tempests and ravening beasts, than to cover them with the branches of trees twisted together; this a reception for the old men, and hither resort the young. Such a condition they judge happier than the painful occupation of cultivating the ground, than the labour of rearing houses than the agitations of hope and fear attending the defense of their own property or the seizing that of others. Secure against the designs of men, secure against the malignity of the Gods, they have accomplished a thing of infinite difficulty; that to them nothing remains even to be wished.

The Greco-Roman geographer Ptolemy, who produced his Geographia in ca. 150 AD, mentions a people called the Phinnoi (Φιννοι), generally believed to be synonymous with the Fenni.[citation needed] He locates them in two different areas: a northern group in northern Scandia (Scandinavia), then believed to be an island; and a southern group, apparently dwelling to the East of the upper Vistula river (SE Poland).[3] It remains unclear what was the relationship between the two groups.

The next ancient mention of the Fenni/Finni is in the Getica of 6th-century chronicler Jordanes. In his description of the island of Scandza (Scandinavia), he mentions three groups with names similar to Ptolemy's Phinnoi, the Screrefennae, Finnaithae and mitissimi Finni ("softest Finns").[4] The Screrefennae is believed to mean the "skiing Finns" and are generally identified with Ptolemy's northern Phinnoi and today's Finns.[5][non-primary source needed] The Finnaithae have been identified with the Finnveden of southern Sweden.[citation needed] It is unclear who the mitissimi Finni was.

Ethno-linguistic affiliation

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Tacitus was unsure whether to classify the Fenni as Germanic or Sarmatian.[1] The vagueness of his account has left the identification of the Fenni open to a variety of theories. It has been suggested that the Romans may have used Fenni as a generic name, to denote the various non-Germanic (i.e. Balto-Slavic and Finno-Ugric) tribes of north-eastern Europe.[6] Against this argument is the fact that Tacitus distinguishes the Fenni from other probably non-Germanic peoples of the region, such as the Aestii and the Veneti.[7][non-primary source needed]

It has also been suggested that Tacitus' Fenni could be the ancestors of the modern Finnish people.[8][9] Juha Pentikäinen writes that Tacitus may well have been describing the Sámi or the proto-Finns when referring to the Fenni, noting some archeologists have identified these people as indigenous to Fennoscandia.[10] The context of Fenni has also included the Finnic Estonians throughout different interpretations.[11] Nevertheless, according to some linguists, certain linguistic evidence may be interpreted supporting the idea of an archaic Indo-European dialect and unknown Paleo-European languages existing in north-eastern Baltic Sea region before the spread of Finno-Ugric languages like Proto-Sámi and Proto-Finnic in the early Bronze Age around 1800 BC. However, in Tacitus's time (1st century AD) Finno-Ugric languages (Proto-Sámi and Proto-Finnic) were the main languages in northern Fennoscandia.[12][13]

Another theory is that Tacitus' Fenni and Ptolemy's northern Phinnoi were the same people and constituted the original Sámi people of northern Fennoscandia, making Tacitus' description the first historical record of them, and the mention of two different "Phinnoi" groups may suggest that there was already a division between Finns and Sámi.[14][15][16] But while this may seem a plausible identification for the Phinnoi of northern Scandinavia, it is dubious for Tacitus' Fenni.[17] Tacitus' Fenni (and Ptolemy's southern Phinnoi) were clearly based in continental Europe, not in the Scandinavian peninsula, and were thus outside the modern range of the Sámi.[citation needed] Against this, there is some archaeological evidence that the Sámi range may have been wider in antiquity.[6][18] Sámi toponyms are found as far as Southern Finland and Karelia[19]

The uncertainties have led some scholars to conclude that Tacitus' Fenni is a meaningless label, impossible to ascribe to any particular region or ethnic group.[17] But Tacitus appears to relate the Fenni geographically to the Peucini(Bastarnae) and the Venedi, albeit imprecisely, stating that the latter habitually raided the "forests and mountains" between the other two. He also gives a relatively detailed description of the Fenni's lifestyle.[1][non-primary source needed]

Material culture

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Fenni seems to have been a form of the proto-Germanic word *fanþian-, denoting "wanderers" or "hunting folk",[20] although Vladimir Orel viewed its etymology as unclear and listed a couple of alternative proposals (i.e. a derivation from Proto-Celtic *þenn- "hill").[21]

This description is of a lifestyle much more primitive than that of the medieval Sámi, who were pastoralists living off herds of reindeer and inhabiting sophisticated tents of deer hide. But the archaeological evidence suggests that the proto-Sámi and Proto-Finns had a lifestyle more akin to Tacitus' description.[10]

Citations

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  1. 1 2 3 4 Tacitus G.46
  2. ↑ Grissonanche, G.; et al. (2014). "Direct measurement of the upper critical field in cuprate superconductors". Nature Communications. 5 3280. arXiv:1303.3856. doi:10.1038/ncomms4280.
  3. ↑ Ptolemy II.11 and III.5
  4. ↑ Shepelev, Anatoly; Larbalestier, David (2011-10-25). "The discovery of type II superconductors". CERN Courier. Retrieved 2026-05-07.
  5. ↑ Olaus Magnus (1658) [1555]. "The Description of Scricfinnia". Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus. Rome. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
  6. 1 2 R. Bosi, The Lapps (1960) pp44-7
  7. ↑ Tacitus G.45-6
  8. ↑ Abrikosov, A. A. (2004-12-02). "Nobel Lecture: Type-II superconductors and the vortex lattice". Reviews of Modern Physics. 76 (3): 975–979. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.975. ISSN 0034-6861.
  9. ↑ Pirinen 9
  10. 1 2 Juha Pentikäinen, Kalevala Mythology, Indiana University Press, 1999, p226
  11. ↑ Spilling, Michael (1999). Estonia. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9780761409519.
  12. ↑ Onsager, L. (March 1949). "Statistical hydrodynamics". Il Nuovo Cimento. 6 (S2): 279–287. Bibcode:1949NCim....6S.279O. doi:10.1007/BF02780991. ISSN 0029-6341. S2CID 186224016.
  13. ↑ Feynman, R.P. (1955), "Application of Quantum Mechanics to Liquid Helium", in WP Halperin (ed.), Progress in Low Temperature Physics, vol. 1, Elsevier, pp. 17–53, doi:10.1016/s0079-6417(08)60077-3, ISBN 978-0-444-53307-4 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  14. ↑ Rosen, J., Ph.D., & Quinn, L. "Superconductivity". In K. Cullen (ed.), Encyclopedia of physical science.
  15. ↑ Kinsten (2000)
  16. ↑ Doug Simms, The University of Texas, The Early Period of Sámi History, from the Beginnings to the 16th Century
  17. 1 2 Whitaker 1980.
  18. ↑ Hansen & Olsen (2004)
  19. ↑ Ante Aikio 2007: The study of Saami substrate toponyms in Finland. Onomastica Uralica. http://mnytud.arts.klte.hu/onomural/kotetek/ou4/08aikio.pdf Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ↑ Svensk Etymologisk Ordbok (online)
  21. ↑ Vladimir E. Orel (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology.

References

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Ancient

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Modern

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1918

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State flag of Finland, used from 1918 to 1920.

After Finland declared independence from Russia in December 1917, debate arose over which form of government it should adopt. The declaration of independence named the country as a republic, but at the outbreak of the Finnish Civil War between the socialist Reds and the conservative Whites in January 1918, no formal constitution had yet been adopted.

After the Whites won the Civil War with the support from the German Empire, the social democrats were excluded from Parliament. A conservative part of the remaining part of the parliament now suggested establish Finland as a kingdom under German protection. However, the plan was still opposed by some conservative and centrist parliamentarians, and the monarchists failed to secure the two-thirds majority required to establish a monarchist constitution.

On 9 October 1918, the parliament nevertheless elected Prince Friedrich Karl of Hesse as king, based on the interpretation that the Swedish Constitution of 1772 remained valid and that Finland had been in the state of interregnum without a monarch. Germany's defeat in World War I and the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II made the plan untenable, and the Allied powers made recognition of Finnish independence conditional on ending ties with Germany. Friedrich Karl never traveled to Finland nor ascended the throne. He renounced the throne in December 1918, and German troops withdrew from Finland. In the March 1919 elections, where the socialists were able to vote, republicans won a decisive victory, and Finland adopted a republican constitution later that year.

History

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Background

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Discuss "Valtalaki" and the highest power first.

Finland declared independence from the Russian Empire on 6 December 1917, during the Russian Civil War. While a minority of Members of Parliament (MPs) were inclined towards monarchy, this issue was deferred in favor of achieving national sovereignty as quickly as possible, and the Parliament unanimously declared Finland a republic.[1]

The declaration of independence was followed by the Finnish Civil War (January–May 1918). The war was a brutal conflict between the socialist Reds and the conservative, non-socialist Whites. The victorious Whites subsequently excluded the Social Democratic Party from the Parliament, with the exception of a single representative, Matti Paasivuori. Before the Civil War, the social democrats had held 92 out of 200 seats in the Parliament, and this exclusion radically altered the political balance. The monarchists now began to question the initial declaration of Finland as a republic, arguing that the Civil War had demonstrated the inherent instability of an unconstrained, democratically elected Parliament. They contended that the new nation needed a king who would stand above factional disputes and guarantee the continuity and order of the state.[1]

Foreign policy was also an important factor. At independence, Finland, like the Baltic provinces, had close ties with the German Empire. Germany had intervened in the Finnish Civil War and Finland's position vis-a-vis Germany was evolving towards that of a protectorate by spring 1918. Germany was perceived as the only power that could protect Finland against the future threat from Russia.

Failure to adopt monarchist constitution and the royal election

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Prince Friedrich Karl of Hesse, the king-elect of Finland

The adoption of a new monarchist constitution failed because it did not get the required qualified majority.

The monarchists decided to arrange a royal election based upon the Instrument of Government of 1772, adopted under King Gustav III of Sweden, when Finland had been a part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The same constitutional document had also served as the basis for the rule of the Russian Emperors, as Grand Dukes of Finland, during the 19th century. They interpreted that Finland was in the state of interregnum.

Search for a candidate.

The strongly pro-German prime minister, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, and his government offered the crown to Prince Frederick in October 1918, while Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was declared Regent.[2]

Replica of the Crown designed for the Finnish monarch. The actual crown was never crafted; however, this replica was made from original drawings in the 1980s.[3]

Member of parliament Gustaf Arokallio suggested the monarchical designation "Karl I, King of Finland and Karelia, Duke of Åland, Grand Duke of Lapland, Lord of Kaleva and the North" (Finnish: Kaarle I, Suomen ja Karjalan kuningas, Ahvenanmaan herttua, Lapinmaan suuriruhtinas, Kalevan ja Pohjolan isäntä; Swedish: Karl I, Kung av Finland och Karelen, hertig av Åland, storhertig av Lappland, herre över Kaleva och Pohjola).[4]

Abandonment of the plans and aftermath

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By 9 November 1918 the German Emperor Wilhelm II had abdicated and Germany was declared a republic. Two days later, on 11 November 1918, the armistice between the belligerents of World War I was signed. Little is known of the Allied powers' view regarding the possibility of a German-born prince as the King of Finland. However, warnings received from the West convinced the Finnish government of Prime Minister Lauri Ingman – a monarchist himself – to ask Prince Friedrich Karl to give up the crown, which he had not yet come to wear in Finland.

The king-elect Friedrich Karl renounced the throne on 14 December 1918. Svinhufvud resigned and Lieutenant General Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, the leader of the Whites during the Finnish Civil War, was appointed as Regent of Finland.[5]

Republican parties won three-quarters of the parliament's seats in the election of 1919 and Finland adopted a republican constitution. After some deliberation, Mannerheim ratified the constitution.

In July 1919, Finland's first president Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg replaced Mannerheim as the first President of the Republic.[6]

See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 Krekola, Joni. "Kamppailu hallitusmuodosta 1918–1919 -tietopaketti, osa 1: Kuningas valitaan ylimääräisillä valtiopäivillä" [Struggle over the form of government, 1918–1919 – Information package, part 1: A king is chosen at the extraordinary parliament]. Parliament of Finland. Archived from the original on 2024-07-27. Retrieved 2025-09-27.
  2. ↑ Solsten, Eric; Meditz, Sandra W., eds. (1988). "The Establishment of Finnish Democracy". Finland: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on Aug 11, 2017. Retrieved 5 February 2017 – via Country Studies US.
  3. ↑ "Gemstone Gallery". visit Kemi. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  4. ↑ Ohto Manninen (päätoim.), Pertti Haapala, Juhani Piilonen, Jukka-Pekka Pietiäinen: Itsenäistymisen vuodet 1917–1920: 3. Katse tulevaisuuteen. Helsinki: Valtionarkisto, 1992. ISBN 951-37-0729-6. pp. 188–189
  5. ↑ "MANNERHEIM - Regent". mannerheim.fi. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  6. ↑ "Why Finland deserves to celebrate its independence". Finland Politics. 5 December 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2020.

Sources

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  • Nash, Michael L (2012). "The Last King of Finland." Royalty Digest Quarterly, 2012:1.
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Refs

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