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Between the Second and Third Crusades, 1149–1187.

Policical background

The events after the Second Crusade that led to the Third Crusade were overwhelmingly shaped by the leaders of Muslim Syria and Egypt, as well as the rulers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In addition, key players included the Byzantine emperors and commanders, princes, counts and lords of Outremer, the knights of the military orders, and emirs of Muslim courts.

Islamic rulers

The Zengid state under Zengi in 1145, and expansion under Nur al-Din in 1174.

After the success of the First Crusade, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other Crusader states engaged in smaller confrontations with Islamic forces in the Levant but did not face a well-organized, consolidated enemy for nearly fifty years. That changed with the rise of three powerful leaders: Imad al-Din Zengi, his son Nur al-Din, and a Kurd in service of the latter, Saladin.

The Seljuk Zengi first came to prominence in 1127 when he was named atabeg of Mosul, and then of Aleppo the next year. Zengi practiced the politics of jihad against the Latin settlements, beginning with the Battle of Ba'rin in 1137 and culminating with the successful Siege of Edessa in December 1144 which triggered the Second Crusade. Zengi was assassinated in 1146, and was the founder of the eponymous Zengid dynasty.

Zengi was succeeded by his eldest son Sayf al-Din Ghazi I in Mosul, and in Aleppo by his second son Nur al-Din. When Sayf died in 1149, he was succeeded in Mosul by a third son Qutb al-Din Mawdud. Nur al-Din would consolidate Zengid power in Mesopotamia and the Levant, maintaining minor but constant military pressure on the Crusader states. He would later conquer Egypt from the Fatimids.

Ayyubid expansion 1174–1193.

Nur al-Din's original mission to Egypt was to restore restore Shawar as vizier to the teenage Fatimid caliph al-Adid. To accomplish this, he sent the Kurdish commander Shirkuh, who was accompanied by his nephew Saladin, then 27 years old. Shawar was restored to his post, but internal Egyptian politics led to Shirkuh replacing him as vizier. When Shirkuh died in 1169, Saladin was appointed vizier to al-Adid. Upon the death of al-Adid in 1171, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt, abolishing the Fatimid caliphate at Nur al-Din's insistence. In 1174, Nur al-Din died and Saladin moved to take much of Syria, including Damascus and Aleppo, and was proclaimed the Sultan of Egypt and Syria by the Abbasid caliph al-Mustadi. The Ayyubid dynasty was born, and Saladin filled most of the important position with family. The Kingdom of Jerusalem would soon face a unified Islamic force driven by jihad against the Latin West.

The Fatimids of Egypt were still a threat to the Franks, but the caliphate had been unstable since the assassination of the vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah and several of his successors. During the 1153 conflicts between Jerusalem and Cairo, caliph al-Zafir and his vizier al-Adil ibn al-Sallar were ineffectual in repelling the Christian invaders and would be among of the last of the Fatimid rulers.

Rulers of Jerusalem

The Kingdom of Jerusalem was less than a half-century old when the fall of Edessa led the the Second Crusade and the Islamic resurgance that followed. While Jerusalem enjoyed primus inter pares with the Crusader states of Outremer, these states often acted independently. In addition, the rulers of the kingdom were ofter underaged, sickly or lacking in military experience, contributing to the catastrophe of 1187.

Political map of the Crusader states.

King since 1118, Baldwin II of Jerusalem, had no male heirs and designated his daughter Melisende to succeed him. He wished to safeguard the kingdom by marrying her to a powerful lord. Married in June 1129, Fulk V, Count of Anjou and Melisende became joint rulers of Jerusalem in 1131 with Baldwin II's death. Fulk assumed sole control of the government, excluding his wife. In 1143, while the king and queen were on holiday, Fulk was mortally wounded in a hunting accident. Their 13-year-old son Baldwin III of Jerusalem then ascended the throne with his mother as co-ruler. In 1152, he took complete hold of the government.

Dying in 1163 without heirs, the kingdom passed to Baldwin III's brother, Amalric I of Jerusalem, but the Haute Cour refused to endorse Amalric as king unless his marriage to Agnes of Courtenay was annulled. Amalric agreed and ascended the throne without a wife. Almaric and Agnes had two children, Sibylla of Jerusalem and Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. Almaric married Maria Komnene in 1167, a union which produced a daughter Isabella, later queen. He died in 1174 and was succeeded by his son Baldwin IV.

In 1179, Baldwin IV began planning a marriage of Sibylla. After some intrigue, he hastily arranged her marriage to Guy of Lusignan. By 1182, Baldwin IV, increasingly incapacitated by his leprosy, came to an agreement with the Haute Cour to make the 5-year-old Baldwin V of Jerusalem his heir. Sibylla's son by her first marriage to William Longsword of Montferrat, Baldwin V was placed before Sibylla and Guy. The child was crowned co-king in 1183. Baldwin IV died in spring 1185, elevating Baldwin V to be the sole king. He, in turn, died shortly thereafter during the summer of 1186, at Acre.

After the funeral of Baldwin V, Sibylla was named the successor to the throne, as Queen of Jerusalem, contingent of her agreement to divorce Guy. Once crowned, she immediately crowned Guy as king. Sibylla would die in 1190, leaving Guy to rule through the beginning of the Third Crusade, He became lord of Cyprus in 1192 and was succeeded by Almaric's daughter Isabella I of Jerusalem and her husband Conrad of Montferrat.

Zengi's legacy

Zengi was a powerful Muslim ruler in the twelfth century who played a major role in the struggles between Islam and the Franks in the Levant. Born around 1085, he became the governor of Mosul in 1127 and within a year, Aleppo, establishing himself as a strong military and political leader. Zengi unitied divided Muslim territories at a time when the Crusader states had taken control of important lands following the First Crusade. His leadership marked the beginning of a more organized Muslim resistance against the Crusaders.

Zengi’s greatest achievement came in 1144, when he captured the city of Edessa from the Crusaders. The fall of Edessa shocked the Christian West because it was the first major Crusader state to be lost after decades of Christian control. This event resulted in the Second Crusade, as European leaders sought to regain their lost territory. Zengi’s victory demonstrated that the Crusader states were vulnerable and that Muslim forces could reclaim lands through unity and military strength. His reputation grew throughout the Islamic world, where he was praised as a defender of Islam.

A skilled commander, Zengi was also known for being harsh and sometimes ruthless in his rule. He maintained strict control over his territories and dealt severely with rivals and rebellions. On 14 September 1146, he was assassinated by one of his servants while besieging a fortress in northern Syria. Despite his death, his legacy endured through his son, Nur al-Din, and later through the Kurdish Saladin, both of whom advanced the effort to unite Muslim lands against the Crusaders.

Advent of Nur al-Din

Nur al-Din was the second son of Zengi and became governor of Aleppo upon his father's death. He was to continue his father's work to unity the Islamic world to fight jihad against the Franks.

Edessa revisited

Battle of Edessa in 1146, illustrated by Jeanne Montbaston (1337), Bibliothèque Nationale de France

After the death of Zengi, an Armenian contingent in Edessa began plotting with Joscelyn II of Edessa on how to retaken the city. Together with Baldwin of Marash, Joscelyn assembled a force and took control of the city on 27 October 1146. The defending Turkish garrison retreated to the citadel which Joscelyn was unable to subdue. Nur al-Din marched from Aleppo with a force of 10,000, arriving at Edessa on 2 November, beginning the second Siege of Edessa. Trapped between the besieging troops and those in the citadel, the Christians soon fell and were massacred or enslaved. Nur al-Din had most of the churches destroyed and the fortifications dismantled.

Unur and Damascus

In 1130, Zengi had allied with the emir of Damascus, Taj al-Mulk Buri, to fight the Latins, but this was a temporary alliance. By 1135, Zengi began an unsuccessful siege of the city, the first of numerous attempts to add Damascus to his domain. The city's defense was led by the Mamluk commander Mu'in ad-Din Unur. By 1140, Unur had become the de facto ruler of Damascus as vizier to the young emir Mujir ad-Din Abaq, part of the Burid Dynasty. That same year, Unur joined with Fulk of Jerusalem in a siege of the city of Banias, an arrangement which led to an alliance with Jerusalem ostensibly to protect against aggresion from Zengi. Banias has been under Zengid control since 1137, and after the successful siege, Abaq ceded the city to Fulk.

Under Unur, Damascus had shifting allegiance and in 1147 turned to the Zengids during the Second Crusade. The rapproachment between Unur and Nur al-Din also included the marriage of the former's daughter Ismat ad-Din Khatun to Nur al-Din. Having established peace with Aleppo, Unur set out to besiege Salkhad and Bosra after their governor Altuntash allied with Jerusalem against him. This broke Jerusalem's treaty with Damascus, forcing Unur to turn to Nur al-Din for assistance. Nur al-Din arrived with an army of Aleppo, initiating the Battle of Bosra afterwhich both cities surrendered to Damascus. Altuntash later came to Damascus seeking a pardon but was blinded and imprisoned.

The direction of the Second Crusade changed after the Council of Acre met on 24 June 1148 and decided to reroute the forces in-theater to attack Damascus. Unur, wary of the growing power of the Zengids, nevertheless turned to Nur al-Din and his brother Sayf al-Din Ghazi I for help. In July, the Crusader armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus. The Siege of Damascus took place between 24 and 28 July 1148 and was a disaster for the Crusaders, forcing them to retreat to Jerusalem, ending the Second Crusade.

In 1149, Unur led raids against Latin territory in response to the continued Crusader raids against the territory of Damascus. He agreed to a two-year truce with Baldwin III of Jerusalem, and then joined Nur al-Din against the Principality of Antioch. Unur's forces patrolled the Hauran while Nur al-Din defeated Antioch at Inab that year. After Unur's death in 1149, the emir Abaq continued his concilitory policies towards the West. In 1150 and 1151, Nur al-Din besieged the city, but retreated each time with no success, aside from empty recognition of his suzerainty. When Ascalon was captured by the Crusaders in 1153, Abaq forbade Nur al-Din from traversing his territory. The growing weakness of Damascus under the emir allowed Nur al-Din to overthrow him in 1154 with help from the population of the city. Damascus was annexed to Zengid territory, and all of Syria was unified under the authority of Nur ad-Din, from Edessa in the north to the Hauran in the south.

Muslim victory at Inab

Main article: Battle of Inab

Nūr al-Din's victory at the Battle of Inab, 1149. Illustration from the Passages d'outremer, c. 1490.

Following the Crusader defeat at Damascus, Nur al-Din sought to consolidate his power in Syria. Having established his bona fides in Aleppo and at the 1146 capture of the city of Edessa, he first invaded the Principality of Antioch in late 1148 and laid siege to Afamiya. This invasion was easily repelled by Raymond of Antioch. In June 1149, Nur al-Din again invaded Antioch and besieged the fortress of Inab in northern Syria. His resultant victory established Nur al-Din as the dominant force in Syria.

For the invasion, Nur al-Din allied himself with Unur and was supported by Turcomans, with a large force, predominately cavalry. Defending Inab were Raymond and his Antiochene forces as supported by the Assassins, sworn enemies of Nur al-Din. Raymond was not supported by the neighboring Crusader states. Joscelin II of Edessa had been Raymond's enemy since he had refused to send an army to relieved the besieged Edessa in 1146, making as alliance with Nur al-Din against Antioch. Raymond II of Tripoli and Melisende of Jerusalem also refused aid. Having defeated Nur al-Din before, Raymond was confident that his small army was more than sufficient.

The forces of Raymond and ibn-Wafa approached Inab and encamped nearby in open county. Nur al-Din's scouts discovered the enemy forces and, surrounded the camp during the night. On 29 June 1149, the Battle of Inab began when Nur al-Din attacked and destroyed the army of Antioch. Even with an avenue of escape available, Raymond did not abandon his soldiers and was killed along with ibn-Wafa and Reynald of Marash. Most of Antioch was now open to Nur al-Din, including a route to the Mediterranean. Nur al-Din's overwhelming victory at Inab cemented his position as the predominant Islamic commander in the Levant.

Nur al-Din went on to capture the fortresses of Artah and Harim, which defended the approach to the city of Antioch itself. He then sent his army to besiege Afamiya. After plundering the region, he besieged Antioch, defenseless because of the loss of its army. Raymond's widow Constance of Antioch and patriarch Aimery of Limoges negotiated a settlement, and Nur al-Din was bought off, with treasure coming from the patriarch's own possessions. Upon receiving news that Baldwin III of Jerusalem was marching north to relieve the siege, Nur al-Din opened negotiations. The border between Antioch and Aleppo was re-drawn to Nur ad-Din's gain and the armies returned home.

Final destruction of the County of Edessa

Following the fall of Edessa in 1144, Joscelin II of Edessa fled to Turbessel, where the remnants of the western part of the county remained. Most of the Crusader fortresses in the county were fell into disrepair and subsequently abandoned. The exception was at Azaz, just 20 miles from Aleppo, where Humphrey II of Toron sent sixty knights to reinforce the garrison in 1146.

The expansion of the county of Edessa prior to 1131.

The loss at Inab in the summer of 1149 left Joscelin nearly surrounded by Islamic forces. Shortly thereafter, Mesud I, the Seljuk Seljuk sultan of Rûm, invaded the Principality of Antioch and proceeded to besiege Joscelin at Turbessel. Baldwin III of Jerusalem come north with noblemen Raymond II of Tripoli and Humphrey II of Toron and a contingent of knights both to help Joscelin and to prevent the fall of Azaz which remained a key asset in the region. This convinced Mesud to raise his siege. At the same time, Kara Arslan turned on Joscelin and invaded Edessa, seizing Gargar and the surrounding area, while a joint Frankish-Armenian attempt to turn him back failed.

In the spring of 1150, Joscelin was summoned to Antioch by the patriarch Aimery of Limoges to take up the regency. While en route, Joscelin was taken prisoner by Nur al-Din's forces. When his identity became known, Joscelin was taken to Nur al-Din who had him blinded and imprisoned. The county was then invaded on all sides and absorbed by Mesud, Timurtash of Mardin, and Nur al-Din. Joscelin spent the remaining nine years of his life in captivity.

Upon the capture of Joscelin, Nur al-Din attacked Turbessel but a strong defense was offered by the countess Beatrice of Saone, and he withdrew. But it was clear that the city could not be held. She was prepared to abandon the city when an offer to buy Turbessel and the remainder of the county from emperor Manuel I Komnenos. The sale include the fortresses of Turbessel, Ravendel, Samosata, Aintab, Dülük and Birejik, but the countess retained possession of Rum Kalaat, which she gave to the Armenian Apostolic Church.

In August 1150, Nur al-Din once again attacked, confronting Baldwin III and his withdrawing force at the Battle of Aintab. The Islamic forces fell upon Baldwin's column between Dülük and Aintab, and was able to get his non-combatants safely into the town of Aintab. The next day, the soldiers were formed to protect the refugees and the baggage train. Baldwin led the advance guard with his knights protecting the right and left flanks. Raymond II and Humphrey II formed the rear guard. Nur al-Din attacked the Franks throughout the day, but he withdrew at sunset, lacking both success and supplies. The soldiers and non-combatants made it safely to Antiochene territories without further incident.

An alliance was formed when Nur al-Din married Mesud's daughter shortly after Joscelin's capture. In the spring of 1151, these allies attacked the Byzantine garrisons, with the spoils shared amongst Mesud, Timurtash of Mardin and Nur al-Din. Turbessel resisted initially but eventually was starved out and fell on 12 July 1151. All of the County of Edessa had been taken by Islam.

Raymond II would soon see the County of Tripoli under attack by these same forces. Nur al-Din attacked the county in spring 1152 and capturing Tortosa and leaving a garrison there. Soon after, Baldwin III came to Tripoli and held a council the leading barons of Jerusalem and Tripoli. After the king's arrival, Nur al-Din's troops left Tortosa after destroying the fortress.

The Assassins in Syria

Main article: Assassins

The Assassins were founded by the Arab religious scholar Hassan-i Sabbah in 1090, after the capture of Alamut Castle in the Alborz mountain range of Persia, which served as the Assassins' headquarters. They practiced a radical form of Islam which called for the killing of their perceived enemies, Muslim or Christian, although, when convienient, forming alliances with them. Beginning in the early twelfth century, the Assassins moved into Syria, wreaking havoc on the Syrian rulers, with their first major kill being that of Mawdud, atabeg of Mosul, in 1113. Mawdud was felled by Assassins in Damascus while a guest of Toghtekin, atabeg of Damascus. He was replaced at Mosul by al-Bursuqi, who himself would be a victim of the Assassins in 1126. A Persian Assassin named Bahram al-Da'i appeared in Damascus reflecting cooperation between the Assassins and Toghtekin, including a joint operation against the Crusaders at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar.

After the death of Toghtekin in 1128, his son Taj al-Muluk Buri began working to free Damascus of the Assassins. At least 6000 Assassins died, and the rest fleeing to Frankish territory. Alamut organized a counterstrike, with two Persian Assassins disguised as Turkish soldiers striking down Buri in 1131, dying of his wounds the next year. Abbasid caliph ar-Rashid was murdered by Assassins in 1136, resulting in a week of celebration at Alamut. Another significant success was the assassination of Da'ud, the son of Mahmud II, the Seljuk sultan of Iraq, who ruled in Azerbaijan and Jibal. Da'ud was felled by four Assassins in Tabriz in 1143, rumored to have been dispatched by Zengi.

In 1149, an Assassin named Ali ibn-Wafa allied with Raymond of Poitiers to defend the borders of the Principality of Antioch against Zengid expansion. The forces met at the Battle of Inab, with Nur ad-Din defeating the Franks, killing both Raymond and ibn-Wafa. Nur ad-Din would again foil the Assassins in 1158, incorporating a castle at Shaizar that they had occupied after the 1157 earthquake into his territory. A few years later in 1152, possibly in retaliation to the establishment of the Knights Templar at Tartus, Raymond II of Tripoli was attacked and killed by two members of the Assassins. As the Assassins had not previously attacked Frankish rulers, it is believed that Raymond was targeted because of his ceding the fortress to the Templars, sworn enemies of the Assassins.This marked the first known Christian victim.

Edward I of England thwarts an attempt on his life by an Assassin and kills the attacker. 19th-century depiction by Gustave Doré

In 1162, Rashid ad-Din Sinan, an alchemist and schoolmaster, was dispatched to Syria as a messenger of his Islamic views and to continue the Assassins' mission. Known as the Old Man in the Mountain, he was the greatest of the Assassin chiefs and first made headquarters at al-Kahf Castle and then the fortress of Masyaf. Sinan's chief enemy was Saladin who, in his campaign to conquer Syria, was intruding on the Assassins' domain. In early 1175, a group of thirteen knife-wielding Assassins managed to penetrate Saladin's camp, nearly reaching the sultan. Again in May 1176, Assassins breached Saladin's tent and wounded him. That August, Saladin decided to eliminate the threat at attack the headquarters at Masyaf Castle. The assault was broken off in less than a week for reasons unknown.Realizing he was unable to subdue the Assassins, he sought to align himself with them, consequently depriving the Crusaders of aligning themselves against him.

In 1191, Sinan ordered the successful assassination of Conrad of Montferrat, the newly elected king of Jerusalem. Whether this happened in coordination with Richard I of England, with Saladin, or with neither, remains unknown. The Assassins were active throughout the last Crusades. In the late 13th century, they were allied with the Egyptian sultan Baibars and unsuccessfully attempted to kill the leader of Lord Edward's Crusade, the future king of England Edward I. The Assassins were effectivley destroyed by the Mongols in 1256.

Ascalon falls to the Franks

Main article: Siege of Ascalon

After years of setbacks at the hands of the Muslims, the Franks of Jerusalem went on the offensive at Ascalon, capturing the Fatimid fortress there in August 1153. In the early years of the kingdom, the 1099 Battle of Ascalon was a defeat for the Fatimid forces, but the fort was not occupied by the Crusaders. The Egyptians mainained possession and refortified the site. The Fatimids considered the fortress to be a bulkward to prevent a Crusader invasion of Egypt.

In the 1130s and 1140s, the Franks built a series of forts to contain Ascalon and protect the kingdom's southern border. During the 1130s and 1140s a series of fortresses were built to watch Ascalon and defend the kingdom's southern border. These were Ibelin, Blanchegarde, Beth Gibelin and Montgisard. In 1150, the fortifications of Gaza City were rebuilt. This ring of forts cut off Ascalon from overland supply routes, forcing the Fatimids to keep the city supplied by sea. The military orders also became prominent in the defense of Jerusalem. Gaza was given to the Knights Templar and Beth Gibelin had already been entrusted to the Knights Hospitaller in 1136.

In 1150, the Fatimids saw the threat posed by the Franks to Ascalon and asked Nur al-Din to participate in a joint defensive action. Nur al-Din refused, concentrating instead on Damascus. By 1152, quarrels between Baldwin III and his mother Melisende had consumed the kingdom, and the Artuqid emir Timurtash of Mardin decided to take advantage of the resulting chaos by attacking Jerusalem. After the emir was repelled, Baldwin decided to attack Ascalon. His army arrived at the city on 25 January 1153, beginning the Siege of Ascalon. The attacking force included the patriarch Fulcher of Angoulême, carrying the relic of the True Cross, and grand masters Raymond du Puy and Bernard de Tremelay. Key leaders of contingents included Hugh of Ibelin, Philip of Milly, Humphrey II of Toron, Maurice of Montreal, Walter of Saint-Omer, and Raynald of Châtillon.

Baldwin III of Jerusalem receiving capitulation of Ascalon, by Sébastien-Melchior Cornu

The siege lasted five months with little progress. Then, on 15–16 August, the defenders attempted to set fire to one of the Franks' siege engines and the fire pushed back, causing the nearby wall to collapse. Still it took three days for the city to be taken and a formal surrender happening on 22 August 1153. This became the first major expansion of the Kingdom of Jerusalem since the acquisition of Banias in 1140. The victory also increased the prestige of Baldwin III.

Consolidation in Syria

Nur al-Din would go on to consolidate his power in Syria, winning significant victories at Damascus, Shaizar and Harim. Frankish victories were few but significant, including Butahai and al-Buqaia. The decade between 1153 and 1163 reflected the leadership of Baldwin III of Jerusalem. After his death in 1163, his successor Amalric of Jerusalem would take the conflict in a new direction, towards Egypt.

Nur al-Din takes Damascus

After four unsuccessful sieges, Damascus would soon fall to Nur al-Din without a fight. As a result of the victory at Ascalon, the Burid emir Mujir ad-Din Abaq began paying an annual tribute to Jerusalem which was unpopular with the Damascene population. The transfer of power was negotiated by Saladin's father Ayyub ibn Shādhi and his brother Shirkuh. On 25 April 1154, Nur al-Din took Damascus, cementing his rule in Syria. Ayyub would serve as governor of Damascus under Nur al-Din.

Frankish defeat at 'Ain al-Mallaha

Main article: Battle of 'Ain al-Mallaha

With Nur al-Din controlling all of Syria, the Franks of Jerusalem faced a unified enemy for the first time, and a truce was declared between the two in February 1157. Three months later, Baldwin III broke the truce by raiding the Turkoman flocks in the area of the fortified town Banias, a stronghold of the Hospitallers. In response, on 18 May, the Damascenes laid siege to Banias. Baldwin III assembled an army and rushed to the defence of the town. Enroute, they were ambushed by Nur al-Din's forces near Jacob's Ford at the Battle of 'Ain al-Mallaha (Lake Huleh) on 19 June 1157. The Franks were badly defeated and many taken captive, including Hugh of Ibelin, and Templars Bertrand de Blanchefort and Odo of St. Amand. Nur al-Din paraded his captives in chains, along with the severed heads of the slain enemy, through the streets of Damascus. Nevertheless, Banias remained in Latin hands for now, succumbing to Nur al-Din in 1174.

Franks unsuccessful Siege of Shaizar

Main article: Siege of Shaizar

Siege of Shaizar

Soon after, Baldwin III mounted a campaign in northern Syria against the town of Shaizar. The ruler of Shaizar had been friendly with the Christians, but, damaged by the 1157 Hama earthquake on 12 August, the town was in chaos and Nur al-Din occupied it. Seeking to keep the town in friendly hands, Baldwin assembled an impressive force in November 1157 that included Raynald of Châtillon, Thierry of Flanders, Reginald of Sidon and Raymond III of Tripoli. Nur al-Din had fallen ill that October, retiring to Aleppo, and his defending forces were disorganized. Baldwin called on Thoros II for reinforcements and then marched on the town. In the meantime, the town's citadel had been occupied by a band of Assassin adventurers.

The Siege of Shaizar began with relative ease, and the Franks and Armenians took the lower town with little resistance. However, the city walls and citadel were fiercely defended. Disagreement about the disposition of the town among the attackers caused serious friction and the siege was abandoned. Nur al-Din promptly appointed an emir to oversee the reconstruction of the town and integrated it into his domain. The Franks went on to recover the castle at Harim, taken by Nur al-Din in 1149 in the aftermath of Inab, in the winter of 1157.

Frankish victory at Butaiha

Main article: Battle of Butaiha

Battle of Putaha (engraving by E. Lechard, c. 1838, original painting by Éloi Firmin Féron)

The Franks and Zengids would soon meet again on the plains near the village of Butaiha (Putaha), northeast of Lake Tiberias. In March 1158, Baldwin III led an army that included Thiery of Flanders and a contingent of Hospitallers, defending the Lordship of Oultrejordain, arriving at Damascus on 7 April. Nur al-Din mounted a counter-offensive, attacking both Sidon and Cave de Sueth (Ayn al-Habis). Baldwin sought to relive the defenders, and met Nur al-Din at the Battle of Butaiha on 15 July 1158. The Crusader forces successfully repelled the Muslim warriors, inflicting heavy casualties. The victory at Butaiha was regarded as one of the most significant military successes for the Crusaders, bolstering the morale of the Christian states in the region and demonstrating their military capabilities against a unified Muslim threat. So significant was the Frankish victory that Nur al-Din sought a truce, and the Syrian-Palestinian frontier was peaceful for several years.

Capture of Raynald of Châtillon

Main article: Battle of Marash

The capture of Raynald of Châtillon

In the fall of 1161, Raynald of Châtillon set out with a small contingent on a raiding party north of Aleppo, seeking to pilfer cattle from Muslim ranchers. The Aleppeans deployed a defending force, and, instead of retreating, Raynald decided to stay and fight. The resulting Battle of Marash on 23 November saw Raynald's force consistently repelling the Muslim attacks. Late in the day, the Franks lost their cohesion and retreated. Raynald tried to rally his troops but soon found himself surrounded and taken prisoner. His troops, numbering some 400 knights and infantry, were slaughtered, with only 30 taken prisoner. Raynald would spend 15 years in captivity as neither the barons of Antioch nor the king of Jerusalem stepped up to pay his ransom. His wife Constance of Antioch ruled Antioch with her young son Bohemond III until her death in 1163. Bohemond eventually negotiated the release of his stepfather in 1176. Raynald would marry Stephanie of Milly and become lord of Transjordan, remaining active in the kingdom's affairs.

Muslim defeat at al-Buqaia

Main article: Battle of al-Buqaia

Battle of al-Buqaia, miniature by Jean Colombe from Sébastien Mamerot's book "Passages d'outremer" (1474)

On 10 February 1163, Baldwin III died and was succeeded by his brother Almaric I, who in September launched an attack on Egypt. Shortly thereafter, the absence of the king compelled Nur al-Din launch an offensive in Lebanon near the Beqaa Valley at a town named al-Buqaia with the intention of mounting an attack on nearby Krak des Chevaliers. With the County of Tripoli being threatened, Raymond III of Tripoli mustered an army and called on Bohemund III of Antioch for help. He was supported by a group of recently-arrived French pilgrims led by Hugh VIII of Lusignan as well as Konstantinos Kalamanos, the Byzantine governor of Cilicia.

Templar Gilbert de Lacy was appointed commander of the force. Discovering an advanced party, the Franks took of in pursuit and surprised the main camp of Nur al-Din. The Muslims were routed and retreated, with Nur al-Din barely escaping with his life. The emir was filled with rage at his loss and vowed revenge. Later that year, the Franks offered a truce which Nur al-Din refused.

Disaster at Harim and Banias

Main article: Battle of Harim

Stung by his defeat at al-Bubaia, Nur al-Din, his brother Qutb al-Din Mawdud and the Artuqids princes of Diyarbakır and Mardin assembled a force and set out to capture the Frankish stronghold at Harem. In Crusader hands since its capture in 1097, it fell to Nur al-Din after the Battle of Inab, and was restored to the Franks in 1158.

Battle of Harim, Histoire d'Outremer (1232–1261)

In early August 1164, the Muslim forces laid siege to the castle, beginning the Battle of Harim. The lord of Harim, Raynald of Saint-Valery, put up a valiant defence but could not last long without reinforcements. From Antioch, Bohemond III called on support from Tripoli and Byzantium, and Raymond III of Tripoli, Konstantinos Kalamanos and Thoros II joined the relief force. At the news of the approaching Franks, Nur al-Din called off the siege and retreated.

Despite warnings from Raynald, Bohemond took the chase and caught the retreating Muslim force on 10 August near Artah, beginning the Battle of Harim. Bohemond charged the Muslims directly, who at first feigned retreat, but turned to the attack. The Frankish forces were decimated with many of the senior commanders taken prisoner. The captives included Bohemond, Raymond III, Kalamanos, Hugh VIII of Lusignan and Joscelin III of Edessa. They were taken bound together in chains to Aleppo.

Nur al-Din was urged to take the fight to Antioch, but he refused. Not wishing to feel the wrath of emperor Manuel I Komnenos and risk Antioch becoming a Byzantine province, he preferred to have a weaken Crusader state. Before long, Nur ad-Din released Bohemond for a ransom because he regarded them as vassals of the Byzantine emperor.

The Muslims advised [Nur ad-Din] to proceed to Antioch and seize it because it was devoid of defenders and fighting men to hold it, but he did not do so. He said, "The city is an easy matter but the citadel is strong. Perhaps they will surrender it to the Byzantine emperor because its ruler is his nephew. To have Bohemond as a neighbor I find preferable to being a neighbour of the ruler of the Constantinople." He sent out squadrons in those areas and they plundered, seized and killed the inhabitants. Later he ransomed Prince Bohemond for a large sum of money and the release of many Muslim captives.

— Ali ibn al-Athir: The Complete History

The disposition of the captives was uneven. Konstantinos Kalamanos was released after three years for a handsome ransom. Raymond III spent eight years in captivity. Hugh VIII died in captivity after many years. Joscelin III, after sharing a cell with Raynald of Châtillon, was released in 1176. Adding Banias to his list of conquered fortresses on 18 November 1164, Nur al-Din had achieved his revenge for his ignominous defeat at al-Buqaia.

Saladin, Ayyubid sultan of Egypt

Main articles: Crusader invasions of Egypt, Saladin in Egypt, and al-Adil

Crusader invasions of Egypt

Saladin in Egypt

Fatimids in Egypt, 1163

By the mid-twelvth century, the Fatimid caliphate was in disarray (and would soon disappear). Al-ʿĀḍid li-Dīn Allāh had been Fatimid caliph since 1160, succeeding his uncle Al-Fa'iz bi-Nasr Allah when he was just nine years. As such, al-Adid was controlled by powerful viziers, beginning with Tala'i ibn Ruzzik who had supported his father and was instrumental in elevating him to the throne. That year, Baldwin III threatened an invasion of Egypt, but halted his plans with the promise of the payment of a large annual tribute by Egypt. Tala'i was succeed by his son Ruzzik ibn Tala'i in 1161 who was murdered by the governor of Upper Egypt, Shawar, in 1162. Shawar's vizierate lasted but nine months when he was overthrown by one of his commanders Dirgham on 31 August 1163. Shawar fled to Syria as Dirgham's purges decimated the senior ranks of the Egyptian army.

Franks and Syrians invade Egypt

In September 1163, Amalric, king of Jerusalem since his brother's death in February, using the pretext that the yearly tribute had not been paid by Cairo, began an invasion of Egypt. His forces crossed the Isthmus of Suez and began to besiege the Egyptian city of Bilbeis. The Egyptians then opened up the Nile dams and let the river flood, forcing the Franks' withdrawal. Amalric returned home but kept his focus on North Africa.

Late in 1163, Shawar arrived in Damascus, hoping to bring Nur al-Din to his cause of reinstatement as Egyptian vizier. At first reticent, Nur al-Din did not want the Franks to upset the balance of power by established a foothold in the Nile. In April 1163, the emir entrusted his longstanding Kurdish commander Shirkuh with the command of a force to invade Egypt and restore Shawar to his office. Shirkuh was accompanied by his nephew, Saladin.

Entering Egypt, Shirkuh first took the town of Fustat, south of Cairo. By late May 1163, Dirgham was dead, struck by an arrow fired by one of his own men. The caliph then installed Shawar as vizier. Relations between Shawar and Shirkuh soon soured, with the Kurd refusing to leave Egypt even with a large incentive, moving his forces to Bilbeis.

Showing a flexibility in allegiances, Shawar turned to Amalric, offering the king financial incentives to come to his rescue. Amalric marched to Egypt and connected with Shawar in July 1164 where they laid siege to Shirkuh's forces at Bilbeis. A stalemate lasted three months when, in October, word reached Amalric about Nur al-Din's successes at Harim and Banias. Amalric quickly negotiated a settlement and both the Latins and Syrians departed Egypt, leaving Shawar in control.

In the years that followed, Shirkuh became increasingly independent of Nur al-Din and planned a further invasion of Egypt. He amassed a large army that included a number of Nur al-Din's warlords. In January 1167, his forces crossed the Sinai, leading Shawar to again turn to Jerusalem for help. In exchange for a large tribute, Amalric and his forces marched to Egypt in February.

Battles at al-Babein and Alexandria

Amalric and Shirkuh at battle

On 28 March 1167, the Frankish and Syrian forces met at the Battle of al-Babein, in the desert south of Cairo near Giza. The Christians were outnumbered, but still Shirkuh did not press his advantage. Finally, a number of his senior commanders including Saladin convinced him to do battle. Losing a large number of knights, Amalric retreated, the battle a stalemate.

From al-Babein, Shirkuh marched to Alexandria, arriving in the summer of 1167. Amalric followed the Syrians and began the Siege of Alexandria. Surrounded by land and sea, the defenders were in desperate straits after only a month. Shirkuh then led a small force out of the city and past the king's men, leaving Saladin in command. Almaric began to pursue his nemesis, but the Egyptians supporting convinced him to stay and press the siege, and the city's defenses were close to collapse. Shirkuh was conducting raids in Upper Egypt and, seeing the deteroriating condictions in Alexandria, decided to sue for peace. It was agreed that both armies would leave Egypt and Shawar would remain in power. Shirkuh returned to Damascus in September and Amalric to Ascalon in August.

Campaign of 1168

Egypt was now, in essence, a client-state of Jerusalem and Almaric once again had ambitions to conquer the Fatimids. Having married the grandniece of emperor Manuel in 1167, he had closer ties with Byzantium and proposed a joint operation against Egypt. Impatient and proded by Hospitaller Grand Master Gilbert of Assailly, he launched an invasion in late October 1168, besieging Bilbeis. The city fell on 4 November and the Franks spared few of the inhabitants.

A siege of Cairo soon followed on 13 November but was not earestly pursued, as Almaric was more interested in a tribute than conquest. He also feared that Shawar would continue his scorched earth policy as he had done at Fustat, burning the city to the ground rather than turn it over to the Franks. After collecting ransom for captives, Amalric withdrew to Saryaqos, north of Cairo. The Frankish offensive soon unraveled. Amalric assumed that the savage assault on Bilbeis would weaken Cairo's resolve, but the opposite happened. Muslim opposition to the Franks hardened, and Shawar reached out to Nur al-Din for assistance.

By November 1168, a large expeditionary force was assembled south of Damascus under the overall command of Shirkuh. Again, Nur al-Din assigned some trusted warlords to curb any independent, self-serving actions on the part of Shirkuh. Saladin would accompany the host. When Amalric learned of the Syrian force, he mustered his forces at Bilbeis and marched east, hoping to intercept them. Failing in that, he realized he was outnumbered and, humbled, returned to Jerusalem. Egypt now lay open to the Syrians.

In early January 1169, Shawar made desperate attempts at negotiating with the Syrians but his base of support had been eroded by his embrace of the Franks. Even though the Syrians were Sunni, the traditional enemies of the Egyptian Shi'ites, they were preferable to the Christian Latins. On 18 January, Shawar rode to Shirkuh's camp to continue discussions when he was ambushed by a party led by Saladin and murdered. His head was brought to the caliph who had eight days earlier expressed a preference for the Syrian. Shirkuh rode triumphantly into Cairo, but was met by an angry mob. He made it to the caliph's palace and was appointed vizier.

Saladin as Egyptian vizier

Nur al-Din was pleased at the outcome of Shirkuh's expedition as it confirmed a Zengid foothold in Egypt, forming a gauntlet around the Frankish settlements. But, barely two months later, Shirkuh died of natural causes. Saladin was inaugerated as vizier on 26 March 1169. Opposition to a Kurd occupying such a prominent position was fierce. A group of Egyptian soldiers and emirs plotted an assassination, but the conspirators were caught and executed. Days later, on 21 August, a large group of soldiers staged what is known as the Battle of the Blacks, opposing Saladin and his rule. The revolt was quickly quelled and Saladin never again faced a military challenge in Cairo.

Saladin exceeded all expectations in his new role as vizier to the caliph, balancing that with his loyalty to his overlord Nur al-Din. Born Yusaf ibn Ayyub, he became known then as Salah al-Din, the "goodness of faith," or Saladin to the Western world.

Disaster at Damietta

Almaric wasted no time in challanging the new vizier. Embassies to the West urging a new crusade were unsuccessful, but Constantinople were well received. On 10 July 1169, a Byzantine fleet under the command of Andronikos Kontostephanos set sail for Cyprus, to await the Frankish force. But Almaric was not ready and it wasn't until October that the expeditionary force was prepared to depart. The Christian armada departed Cyprus on 16 October arriving in Egypt on 25 October.

Damietta

Saladin had advance notice of the invasion and assigned the Egyptian defense to his nephew Taqi al-Din. It was assumed they would first attack Bilbeis. Instead, they sailed towards Damietta, taking Saladin by surprise. The protective chain in the city's harbor prevented the fleet from advancing and so a ground assault on the fortress was begun. Kontostephanos urged quick action because of dwindling rations for his men, but Amalric hesitated, wanting to build more siege engines. In the meantime, the garrison at Damietta was supplied fresh troops and supplies. A Syrian army had been dispatched by Nur al-Din and met up with the Egyptian defenders.

The Christian commanders negotiated a settlement and on 13 December 1169, the Franks burned their siege engines and departed Egypt. Almaric's troops reached Ascalon on 24 December, but the Byzantine fleet, sailing north, were consumed by a major storm destroying most of the ships. The surviving ships returned to Constatinople. Recriminations flew between the Byzantines and Franks, each blaming the other for the disaster.

Sultan of Egypt

The Franks loss at Damietta did not damper the hostilities between Egypt and Jerusalem. But the devasting 1170 Syria earthquake, striking in June, devastated a large portion of northern Syria, killing thousands of Muslims and Christians alike, and many churches and castles were destroyed.

By the winter, Saladin was again on the offensive against the Franks. On 10 December 1170, he began a siege of Darum in the Gaza Strip, the Franks southernmost fortress on the Mediterranean. Lasting two days, Saladin gained entrance into one of the towers but did not take the town. Eight days later, Amalric counterattacked causing Saladin to retreat and turn his attention to Gaza City. The town was captured and sacked but the citadel held. Saladin then reversed course and headed south towards Ayla, modern Aqaba, on the Red Sea, which was his main objective. The Egyptian troops began the Siege of Ayla from both land and sea, successfully capturing Ayla and Pharaoh's Island on 31 December. Saladin garrisoned the stronghold and returned to Cairo in February 1171.

Saladin gradually assumed total leadership over Cairo and al-Adil. He installed his confidant Baha al-Din Qaraqush as head of the palace, essentially securing control over the caliph and his staff. In June 1171, Nur al-Din directed Saladin to reestablish the Sunni Abbasid caliphate in Egypt which was accomplished in phases. On 10 September 1171, the traditional call to prayers in Cairo publicly proclaimed the name of the Sunni Abbasid caliph al-Mustadi instead of al-Adid's. Al-Adid likely never learned of this dramatic change, being on his deathbed due to a severe illness. He died on 13 September 1171 at the age of twenty, sealing the end of the Fatimid Caliphate. Saladin was now the Sultan of Egypt.

Expansion of the Ayyubid dynasty

Expansion of Ayyubid dynasty

Tension between Saladin and Nur al-Din

Pro-Fatimid conspiracy against Saladin

Remnant of the True Cross

Siege of Alexandria (1174)

Remnant of the True Cross

Saladin and the annexation of Syria, 1174–1183

Saladin

The destruction of the Latin kingdom, 1183–1188

Raynald of Châtillon

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