Wikipedia

Timeline of ebooks

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by editing the page to add missing items, with references to reliable sources.

An ebook (short for "electronic book"), also spelled as e-book or eBook, is a book publication made available in electronic form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices.[1] Some trace the concept of an e-reader, a device that would enable the user to view books on a screen, to a 1930 manifesto by Bob Brown titled The Readies,[2] in which he correctly predicted the miniaturization and portability of e-readers, writing that such a machine would allow readers to adjust the size of the text.[3]

The first portable electronic book, the U.S. Department of Defense's "Personal Electronic Aid to Maintenance", was developed in the 1980s.

The inventor of the first ebook is not widely agreed upon. One candidate is Roberto Busa, the creator of the Index Thomisticus, a digital humanities project he initiated in 1946 that created a concordance to 179 texts centering around the works of Thomas Aquinas.[4][5][6] In 1949 Ángela Ruiz Robles, a teacher from Ferrol, Spain, patented the Enciclopedia Mecánica (transl. Mechanical Encyclopedia), a mechanical device which operated on compressed air where text and graphics were contained on spools that users would load onto rotating spindles.[7]

Some historians consider electronic books to have started in the early 1960s with the NLS project headed by Douglas Engelbart at Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the Hypertext Editing System and FRESS projects headed by Andries van Dam at Brown University.[8][9][10] FRESS documents were formatted dynamically for different users, display hardware, window sizes, and so on, as well as having automated tables of contents, indexes, etc. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking, graphics, and other capabilities, and Van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term "electronic book".[11][12]

Several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the ebook,[13][14][15] who planned to create documents using plain text to make them as easy as possible to download and view on devices. His work led to the launch of Project Gutenberg, an online ebook library.[14]

Dedicated hardware devices for ebook reading began to appear in the 70s and 80s. One early ebook implementation was the desktop prototype for a proposed notebook computer, the Dynabook, in the 1970s at PARC.[16] In 1987 the Department of Defense finished tests on four prototypes from Texas Instruments for the Portable Electronic Aid for Maintenance (PEAM) project, a portable electronic delivery device for technical maintenance information.[17] In 1992, Sony launched the Data Discman, an electronic book reader that could read ebooks that were stored on CDs.[18] In 1993, Paul Baim released a freeware HyperCard stack, called EBook, that allowed easy import of any text file to create a pageable version similar to an electronic paperback book, which allowed users to quickly return to the last page they read after leaving, and the stack's name may have popularized the term "ebook".[19]

The publication of ebooks gained support from major software companies, with Adobe introducing the PDF format in 1993.[20] The Open eBook format, developed by the Open eBook Forum and endorsed by Microsoft, was released in September 1999.[21] It was soon superseded by the EPUB format, which became an official standard in 2007.[22] EPUB provides pagination and allows text content to be reflowable even as parameters like font size are changed by the reader.[23]

The first commercially available ebook readers or "e-readers" were launched in 1998: the Rocket eBook and the SoftBook Reader by SoftBook. Sony released the first e-reader to use an E Ink screen in 2004. Electronic paper screen technologies like E Ink mimic the appearance of ink on paper by reflecting ambient light,[24] allowing for greater energy efficiency and a more comfortable reading experience.[25] Beyond e-readers, ownership of tablet computers among online consumers in the United States jumped from 5% in 2011 to 44% in 2014.[26][27]

With the rise of e-readers, authors with books that were not accepted by publishers offered their works online so they could be seen by others.[28] In 2010, a Public Library Funding and Technology Access Study by the American Library Association found that 66% of public libraries in the U.S. were offering ebooks,[29] and a large movement in the library industry began to seriously examine the issues relating to ebook lending, acknowledging a "tipping point" when ebook technology would become widely established.[30] By January 2011, ebook sales at Amazon had surpassed its paperback sales.[31] In 2014, The New York Times predicted that by 2018 ebooks will make up over 50% of total consumer publishing revenue in the United States and Great Britain.[32][needs update]

Before the 1980s

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Roberto Busa, Italian Jesuit priest, was sponsored by IBM in 1949 to create a concordance of over 10 million words found in the works of Thomas Aquinas.
c. 1949
c. 1963
c. 1965
1971
c. 1979

1980s and 1990s

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1980
1985
  • Texas Instruments applies for a patent for a device developed as part of the PEAM program, titled "Apparatus for delivering procedural type instructions", listing John K. Harkins and Stephen H. Morriss as the inventors.[35]
1986
1989
1990
1991
The DD-8 Data Discman
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Bookeen's Cybook Gen1
1998
  • Nuvo Media releases the first handheld e-reader, the Rocket eBook.[58]
  • SoftBook launches its SoftBook reader. This e-reader, with expandable storage, could store up to 100,000 pages of content, including text, graphics and pictures.[59]
  • The Cybook is sold and manufactured at first by Cytale (1998–2003) and later by Bookeen.[citation needed]
1999

2000s

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2000
  • Joseph Jacobson, Barrett O. Comiskey and Jonathan D. Albert are granted US patents related to displaying electronic books; these patents are later used in the displays for most e-readers.[63]
  • Stephen King releases his novella Riding the Bullet exclusively online and it became the first mass-market ebook, selling 500,000 copies in 48 hours.[64]
  • Microsoft releases the Microsoft Reader with ClearType for increased readability on PCs and handheld devices.[65]
  • Microsoft and Amazon work together to sell ebooks that can be purchased on Amazon, and using Microsoft software downloaded to PCs and handhelds.[citation needed]
  • A digitized version of the Gutenberg Bible is made available online at the British Library.[66]
2001
  • Adobe releases Adobe Acrobat Reader 5.0 allowing users to underline, take notes and bookmark.[citation needed]
2002
The Sony Librie was the first e-reader with an E Ink display.
2004
  • Sony Librie, the first e-reader using an E Ink display is released; it has a six-inch screen.[68]
  • Google announces plans to digitize the holdings of several major libraries,[69] as part of what would later be called the Google Books Library Project.
2005
2006
  • Sony Reader PRS-500, with an E Ink screen and two weeks of battery life, is released.[72]
  • LibreDigital launches BookBrowse as an online reader for publisher content.[citation needed]
The 2007 Sony PRS-505 in its leather cover
Size comparison of the Kindle 2 with the larger Kindle DX
2007
2008
2009

2010s

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The iPad tablet computer was released by Apple in 2010.
2010
In 2011 Barnes & Noble released its first touchscreen e-reader, the Nook Simple Touch.
2011
  • May – Amazon.com announces that its ebook sales in the US now exceed all of its printed book sales.[88]
  • June – Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Simple Touch e-reader and Nook Tablet.[89]
  • August – Bookeen launches its own ebooks store, BookeenStore.com, and starts to sell digital versions of titles in French.[90]
  • September – Nature Publishing releases the pilot version of Principles of Biology, a customizable, modular textbook, with no corresponding paper edition.[91]
  • June/November – As the e-reader market grows in Spain, companies like Telefónica, Fnac, and Casa del Libro launch their e-readers with the Spanish brand "bq readers".[citation needed]
  • November – Amazon launches its first Android-based tablet, the Kindle Fire, and the touchscreen Kindle Touch, both devices designed for e-reading.[92][93]
2012
2013
  • April – Kobo releases the Kobo Aura HD with a 6.8-inch screen, which is larger than the current models produced by its US competitors.[106]
  • May – Mofibo launches the first Scandinavian unlimited access ebook subscription service.[107]
  • June – Association of American Publishers announces that ebooks now account for about 20% of book sales. Barnes & Noble estimates it has a 27% share of the US ebook market.[108]
  • June – Barnes & Noble announces its intention to discontinue manufacturing Nook tablets, but to continue producing black-and-white e-readers such as the Nook Simple Touch.[108]
  • June – Apple executive Keith Moerer testifies in the ebook price fixing trial that the iBookstore held approximately 20% of the ebook market share in the United States within the months after launch – a figure that Publishers Weekly reports is roughly double many of the previous estimates made by third parties. Moerer further testified that iBookstore acquired about an additional 20% by adding Random House in 2011.[109]
A Kobo Aura's settings menu
  • Five major US ebook publishers, as part of their settlement of a price-fixing suit, are ordered to refund about $3 for every electronic copy of a New York Times best-seller that they sold from April 2010 to May 2012.[94] This could equal $160 million in settlement charges.
  • Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Glowlight, which has a 6-inch touchscreen using E Ink Pearl and Regal, with built-in front LED lights.[citation needed]
  • July – US District Court Judge Denise Cote finds Apple guilty of conspiring to raise the retail price of ebooks and schedules a trial in 2014 to determine damages.[110]
  • August – Kobo releases the Kobo Aura, a baseline touchscreen six-inch e-reader.[citation needed]
  • September – Oyster launches its unlimited access ebook subscription service.[111]
  • November – US District Judge Chin sides with Google in Authors Guild v. Google, citing fair use.[112] The authors said they would appeal.[113]
  • December – Scribd launches the first public unlimited access subscription service for ebooks.[114]
2014
  • April – Kobo releases the Aura H₂0, the world's first waterproof commercially produced e-reader.[115]
  • June – US District Court Judge Cote grants class action certification to plaintiffs in a lawsuit over Apple's alleged ebook price conspiracy; the plaintiffs are seeking $840 million in damages.[116] Apple appeals the decision.
  • June – Apple settles the ebook antitrust case that alleged Apple conspired to ebook price fixing out of court with the States; however if the District Court ruling is overturned in appeal the settlement would be reversed.[117]
  • July – Amazon launches Kindle Unlimited, an unlimited-access ebook and audiobook subscription service.[118]
2015
  • June – The 2nd US Circuit Court of Appeals with a 2:1 vote concurs with Judge Cote that Apple conspired to ebook price fixing and violated federal antitrust law.[119] Apple appealed the decision.
  • June – Amazon releases the Kindle Paperwhite (3rd generation) that is the first e-reader to feature Bookerly, a font exclusively designed for e-readers.[120]
  • September – Oyster announces its unlimited access ebook subscription service would be shut down in early 2016 and that it would be acquired by Google.[121]
  • September – Malaysian ebook company, e-Sentral, introduces for the first time geo-location distribution technology for ebooks via Bluetooth beacon. It was first demonstrated in a large scale at Kuala Lumpur International Airport.[122]
  • October – Amazon releases the Kindle Voyage that has a 6-inch, 300 ppi E Ink Carta HD display, which was the highest resolution and contrast available in e-readers as of 2014.[123] It also features adaptive LED lights and page turn sensors on the sides of the device.
  • October – Barnes & Noble releases the Glowlight Plus, its first waterproof e-reader.[124]
  • October – The US appeals court sides with Google instead of the Authors' Guild, declaring that Google did not violate copyright law in its book scanning project.[125]
  • December – Playster launches an unlimited-access subscription service including ebooks and audiobooks.[126]
  • By the end of 2015, Google Books scanned more than 25 million books.[3]
  • By 2015, over 70 million e-readers had been shipped worldwide.[3]
2016
  • March – The Supreme Court of the United States declines to hear Apple's appeal against the court's decision of July 2013 that the company conspired to ebook price fixing, hence the previous court decision stands, obliging Apple to pay $450 million.[127]
  • April – The Supreme Court declines to hear the Authors Guild's appeal of its book scanning case, so the lower court's decision stands; the result means that Google can scan library books and display snippets in search results without violating US copyright law.[128]
  • April – Amazon releases the Kindle Oasis, its first e-reader in five years to have physical page turn buttons and, as a premium product, it includes a leather case with a battery inside; without including the case, it is the lightest e-reader on the market to date.[129]
  • August – Kobo releases the Aura One, the first commercial e-reader with a 7.8-inch E Ink Carta HD display.[130]
  • By the end of the year, smartphones and tablets have both individually overtaken e-readers as methods for reading an ebook, and paperback book sales are now higher than ebook sales.[131]
2017
  • February – The Association of American Publishers releases data showing that the US adult ebook market declined 16.9% in the first nine months of 2016 over the same period in 2015, and Nielsen Book determines that the ebook market had an overall total decline of 16% in 2016 over 2015, including all age groups.[132] This decline is partly due to widespread ebook price increases by major publishers, which has increased the average ebook price from $6 to almost $10.[133]
  • February – The US version of Kindle Unlimited comprises more than 1.5 million titles, including over 290,000 foreign language titles.[134]
  • March – The Guardian reports that sales of physical books are outperforming digital titles in the UK, since it can be cheaper to buy the physical version of a book when compared to the digital version due to Amazon's deal with publishers that allows agency pricing.[131]
  • April – The Los Angeles Times reports that, in 2016, sales of hardcover books were higher than ebooks for the first time in five years.[133]
  • October – Amazon releases the Oasis 2, the first Kindle to be IPX8 rated meaning that it is water resistant up to 2 meters for up to 60 minutes; it is also the first Kindle to enable white text on a black background, a feature that may be helpful for nighttime reading.[citation needed]
2018
  • January – U.S. public libraries report record-breaking borrowing of OverDrive ebooks over the course of the year, with more than 274 million ebooks loaned to card holders, a 22% increase over the 2017 figure.[135]
  • October – The EU allowed its member countries to charge the same VAT for ebooks as for paper books.[136]
2019
  • May – Barnes & Noble releases the GlowLight Plus e-reader, the largest Nook e-reader to date with a 7.8-inch E Ink screen.[137]

2020s

edit
2022
2024

References

edit
  1. ↑ Gardiner, Eileen and Ronald G. Musto. "The Electronic Book." In Suarez, Michael Felix, and H. R. Woudhuysen. The Oxford Companion to the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 164.
  2. ↑ Brown, Bob (2009), The Readies, Rice University Press, ISBN 9780892630226, archived from the original on 2016-11-29, retrieved 2013-08-28.
  3. 1 2 3 Schuessler, Jennifer (2010-04-11). "The Godfather of the E-Reader". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-06-25.
  4. ↑ Busa, R. (1980). "The Annals of Humanities Computing: The Index Thomisticus". Computers and the Humanities. 14 (2): 83–90. doi:10.1007/BF02403798. ISSN 0010-4817. JSTOR 30207304. S2CID 38602853.
  5. ↑ Bryson, Anne (2014). Medieval Studies and the Computer. City: Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-1-322-55604-8. OCLC 899135579.
  6. ↑ Anderson, Craig; Pham, Jeanie (March 2013). "Practical overlap: The possibility of replacing print books with e-books". Australian Academic & Research Libraries. 44 (1): 40–49. doi:10.1080/00048623.2013.773866. ISSN 0004-8623.
  7. 1 2 Lallanilla, Marc (January 30, 2013). "Is This 1949 Device the World's First E-Reader?". Live Science. Archived from the original on August 23, 2014. Retrieved May 15, 2014.
  8. 1 2 DeRose, Steven J; van Dam, Andries (1999). "Document Structure and Markup in the FRESS Hypertext System". Markup Languages. 1 (1): 7–32. doi:10.1162/109966299751940814.
  9. 1 2 Carmody, Steven; Gross, Walter; Nelson, Theodor H; Rice, David; van Dam, Andries (1969), "A Hypertext Editing System for the /360", in Faiman; Nievergelt (eds.), Pertinent Concepts in Computer Graphics: Proceedings of the Second 17 University of Illinois Conference on Computer Graphics, University of Illinois Press, pp. 291–330.
  10. 1 2 van Dam, Andries; Rice, David E (1970), Computers and Publishing: Writing, Editing and Printing, Advances in Computers, Academic Press, pp. 145–74.
  11. ↑ Reilly, Edwin D (August 30, 2003), Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology, Greenwood, p. 85, ISBN 9781573565219, archived from the original on 2016-11-29.
  12. ↑ Ardito, Stephanie (April 2000), "Electronic Books: To "E" or not to "E"; that is the question", Searcher: The Magazine for Database Professionals, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 28-39, archived from the original on March 16, 2026.
  13. ↑ Michael S. Hart, Project Gutenberg, archived from the original on 2012-11-06
  14. 1 2 3 Flood, Alison (September 8, 2011). "Michael Hart, inventor of the ebook, dies aged 64". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
  15. ↑ Grimes, William (September 8, 2011). "Michael Hart, a Pioneer of E-Books, Dies at 64". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 10, 2011. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
  16. ↑ Personal Dynamic Media Archived July 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – By Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg
  17. 1 2 3 Wisher, Robert A.; Kincaid, J. Peter (March 1989). "Personal Electronic Aid for Maintenance: Final Summary Report" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016.
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  19. 1 2 Paul W. Baim (31 July 1993). "EBook 1.0" – via Internet Archive.
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  22. ↑ "Older Versions of EPUB". International Digital Publishing Forum. Archived from the original on 2017-08-31. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
  23. ↑ "Understanding EPUB 3". ePub Zone. Retrieved 2026-06-22.
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  25. ↑ Janssens, Guy; Martin, Harry (2009-07-01). "The Feasibility of E-Ink Readers in Distance Learning: A Field Study". International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM). 3 (3): 38. doi:10.3991/ijim.v3i3.726. ISSN 1865-7923.
  26. ↑ Fingas, Jon (February 11, 2014). "Two-thirds of Americans now have smartphones". Archived from the original on February 21, 2014.
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  36. ↑ Miller, Michael W. (1989). "A Brave New World: Streams of 1s and 0s". Wall Street Journal.
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  43. ↑ 電子書籍端末ショーケース：DATA Discman――ソニー Archived October 22, 2018, at the Wayback Machine February 25, 2012, ITmedia eBook USER
  44. ↑ Cohen, Michael (2013-12-19). "Scotched: Fair thoughts and happy hours did not attend upon an early enhanced-book adaptation of Macbeth". The Magazine. No. 32. Seattle, WA: Aperiodical LLC. Archived from the original on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2015-06-07.
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  85. ↑ Bilton, Nick (2010-10-26). "Barnes & Noble Puts Color on Its Nook". The New York Times. Retrieved 2026-06-28.
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