Shiwiar (Shiwiar: Shiwiar chicham, Achuar-Shiwiar pronunciation: [ʃiwʲár t͡ʃit͡ʃam][1]), also known as Jivaro and Maina, is a Chicham language spoken along the Pastaza and Bobonaza rivers in Ecuador. Shiwiar is one of the thirteen indigenous languages of Ecuador.[2] All of these Indigenous languages are endangered.[2]
| Shiwiar | |
|---|---|
| Shiwiar chicham | |
| Pronunciation | [ʃiwʲár t͡ʃit͡ʃam] |
| Native to | Peru, Ecuador |
| Ethnicity | Achuar people, Shiwiar |
Native speakers | 1,200 (2020)[1] |
Chicham
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | acu |
| Glottolog | achu1248 |
| ELP | Achuar |
 Shiwiar is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. | |
Classification
editShiwiar is a member of the Chicham languages, also known as "Jivaroan", derived from a Spanish corruption of the common Chicham designation for themselves, *ʃíwar. This family consists of Shiwiar, Achuar, which is typically considered a dialect of Shiwiar,[3] Shuar, Huambisa (Wampis), and Aguaruna (Awajun). However, the term "Jivaro" has negative connotations, and has been replaced in recent times by Chicham 'language', as suggested by Tuntiak Katan Jua, a Shuar linguist. All of the languages except for Aguarona are closely related, and have been described as a dialect continuum.[1]
Speakers
editShiwiar is spoken by the Achuar people of the Amazonian region of Ecuador.[4] The Achuar people also speak Spanish, Shuar, and Kichwa along with their native language, Shiwiar.[4]
Although the Achuar live in the Amazon Basin, the extracting of oil and raw materials from Ecuador through mining has displaced the Achuar communities and endangered their homes.[5]
While Ecuador's official language is Spanish, the Achuar people along with other indigenous groups have the right to use their own languages in education through the official language policies of Ecuador legalized in Decree No. 000529, Article 27, and the Dirección Nacional de Educación Indígena Intercultural Bilingüe (DINEIIB).[6]
Phonology
edit| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Postalveolar/ Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | p | t | k | ||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||
| Affricate | ts | tʃ | |||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | h | ||
| Tap | ɾ | ||||
| Approximant | w | j |
/t, n/ are phonetically dental as [t̪, n̪]. /ŋ/ has a very limited distribution as it only recently acquired phonemic status. Stops and affricates are usually voiced following a nasal consonant. /h/ is palatalized to [ç] when it is preceded by a front-high vowel. When /ɾ/ immediately follows a nasal, an epenthic voiced stop may optionally be inserted between them. For some speakers, /h/ can be realized as a voiceless velar fricative [x]. /w/ has no velar articulation, and it is realized as a labio-dental approximant [ʋ] or a bilabial approximant [β̞] when followed by /i/.[8]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i ĩ | ɨ ɨ̃ | u ũ |
| Open | a ã |
Vowels in Shiwiar have much allophonic variation. All two-vowel sequences, except for */iɨ/ and */ɨi/, can form diphthongs. /a/ is typically realized as [ɐ, ə] in unnaccented syllables. If a low vowel is immediately preceded or followed by /i/, or preceded by a palatalized consonant, /a/ is sometimes realized as a mid-low [ɛ] or mid front vowel [e̞]. In the vicinity of /w/, /a, ã/ are often realized as [ʌ, ʌ̃], whereas /ɨ, ɨ̃/ are often realized as [ɤ, ɤ̃]. /ɨ/ may also be heard as a high back vowel [ɯ] when preceding labial consonants /p, m/.[10]
References
edit- 1 2 3 Kohlberger, M. (2020). A Grammatical Description of Shiwiar (PDF) (PhD thesis). Leiden University. hdl:1887/123115.
- 1 2 Moseley, C., ed. (2010). Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (3rd ed.). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-104095-5. OCLC 610522460.
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2026). "Achuar-Shiwiar". Glottolog 5.3. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- 1 2 Crevels, M. (2012). "Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking". In Campbell, L.; Grondona, V. (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 167–234. doi:10.1515/9783110258035.167. ISBN 978-3-11-025803-5.
- ↑ "Achuar and the Amazon Basin". Indigenous Religious Traditions. 2011-02-17. Archived from the original on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
- ↑ King, K. A.; Haboud, M. (2002). "Language Planning and Policy in Ecuador". Current Issues in Language Planning. 3 (4): 359–424. doi:10.1080/14664200208668046.
- ↑ Kohlberger 2020, p. 84.
- ↑ Kohlberger 2020, p. 84-117.
- ↑ Kohlberger 2020, p. 117.
- ↑ Kohlberger 2020, p. 117-119.
Bibliography
edit- Mowitz, G.; Warkentin de Fast, R.; Fast Warkentin, D. (1996), Diccionario achuar-shiwiar–castellano, Lingüística peruana, 36 (in Spanish), Lima: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano
External links
edit- Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Achuar". World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
- New Testament in Achuar
- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Achuar
- Achuar–Shiwiar on Native Languages of the Americas
- Listen to a sample of Achuar–Shiwiar from Global Recordings Network
- OLAC resources in and about Achuar-Shiwiar