Pharyngealization or pharyngealisation is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound.
| Pharyngealized | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ◌ˤ | |||
| IPA number | 423 | ||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | ˤ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+02E4 | ||
| X-SAMPA | _?\ | ||
| |||
| Velarized or pharyngealized | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ◌̴ | |||
| IPA number | 428 | ||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | ̴ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+0334 | ||
| |||
| Epiglottalized | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ◌𐞴 | |||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | 𐞴 | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+107B4 | ||
| |||
IPA symbols
editIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, pharyngealization can be indicated by one of two methods:
- A tilde or swung dash (IPA Number 428) is written through the base letter (typographic overstrike). It is the older and more generic symbol. It indicates velarization, uvularization or pharyngealization, as in [ᵶ], the guttural equivalent of [z].
- The symbol ⟨ˤ⟩ (IPA Number 423) – a superscript variant of ⟨ʕ⟩, the voiced pharyngeal approximant – is written after the base letter. It indicates specifically a pharyngealized consonant, as in [tˤ], a pharyngealized [t].
Some linguists have also used a superscript voiced epiglottal fricative ⟨𐞴⟩ to represent pharyngealization,[1] though this may also be used more specifically to indicate epiglottalization (a particularly strong degree of pharyngealization), as in the case of strident vowels.[2]
Other systems
editIn many romanization systems like for Arabic, ◌̣ is used. For example, ṭ is used for the country of Qaṭar (in Arabic script قطر).
Computing codes
editSince Unicode 1.1, there have been two similar superscript characters: IPA ⟨ˤ⟩ (U+02E4 ˤ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL REVERSED GLOTTAL STOP) and Semiticist ⟨ˁ⟩ (U+02C1 ˁ MODIFIER LETTER REVERSED GLOTTAL STOP). U+02E4 is formally a superscript ⟨ʕ⟩ (U+0295 ʕ LATIN LETTER PHARYNGEAL VOICED FRICATIVE, = reversed glottal stop), and in the Unicode charts looks like a simple superscript ⟨ʕ⟩, though in some fonts it looks like a superscript reversed lower-case letter glottal stop ⟨ɂ⟩. U+02C1 is a typographic alternative to ⟨ʿ⟩ (U+02BF ʿ MODIFIER LETTER LEFT HALF RING); which is used to transliterate the Semitic consonant ayin and which is equivalent to a reversed ⟨ʾ⟩, which itself transliterates the glottal Semitic consonants aleph and hamza. In the Unicode charts U+02C1 looks like a reversed ⟨ˀ⟩ (U+02C0 ˀ MODIFIER LETTER GLOTTAL STOP), which is used in the IPA for glottalization. There is no parallel Unicode distinction for modifier glottal stop. The IPA Handbook[3] lists U+02E4 as the Unicode equivalent of IPA Number 423, the dedicated IPA symbol for pharyngealization.
The superimposed tilde is assigned Unicode character U+0334. This was originally intended to combine with other letters to represent pharyngealization. However, that usage is now deprecated (though still functional), and several precomposed letters have been adopted to replace it. These are the labial consonants ⟨ᵱ ᵬ ᵮ ᵯ⟩ and the coronal consonants ⟨ᵵ ᵭ ᵴ ᵶ ᵰ ᵲ ᵳ ɫ⟩.
| Character | ʕ | ˤ | ˁ | ʿ | ̴ | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unicode name | Latin letter pharyngeal voiced fricative | modifier letter small reversed glottal stop | modifier letter reversed glottal stop | modifier letter left half ring | combining tilde overlay | |||||
| Character encoding | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex |
| 661 | 0295 | 740 | 02E4 | 705 | 02C1 | 703 | 02BF | 820 | 0334 | |
| Numeric character reference | ʕ | ʕ | ˤ | ˤ | ˁ | ˁ | ʿ | ʿ | ̴ | ̴ |
Usage
editUbykh, an extinct Northwest Caucasian language spoken in Russia and Turkey, used pharyngealization in 14 pharyngealized consonants. Tsilhqotʼin has pharyngealized consonants that trigger pharyngealization of vowels. Many languages (such as Salishan, Sahaptian) in the Plateau culture area of North America also have pharyngealization processes that are triggered by pharyngeal or pharyngealized consonants, which affect vowels.
The Tuu/"Khoisan" language Taa (or !Xóõ) has pharyngealized vowels that contrast phonemically with voiced, breathy and epiglottalized vowels.[4] That feature is represented in the orthography by a tilde under the respective pharyngealized vowel. In Tuu languages, epiglottalized vowels are phonemic.
For many languages, pharyngealization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. Dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar, but clear l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.[5]
Arabic and Syriac use secondary uvularization, which is generally not distinguished from pharyngealization, for the "emphatic" coronal consonants.[6][7]
Examples of pharyngealized consonants
edit(Uvularized consonants are not distinguished from pharyngealized.)
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | mˤ | nˤ | ɴˤ | ||||||||||
| Plosive | pˤ | bˤ | tˤ | dˤ | kˤ | ɡˤ | qˤ | ɢˤ | ʔˤ | ||||
| Sibilant affricate | tsˤ | dzˤ | tʃˤ | dʒˤ | |||||||||
| Fricative | fˤ | vˤ | θˤ | ðˤ | sˤ | zˤ | ʃˤ | ʒˤ | χˤ | ʁˤ | hˤ | ||
| Approximant | ɹˤ | wˤ | |||||||||||
| Trill | rˤ | ||||||||||||
| Lateral affricate | tɬˤ | dɮˤ | |||||||||||
| Lateral fricative | ɬˤ | ɮˤ | |||||||||||
| Lateral approximant | lˤ | ||||||||||||
Stops
edit- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar stop ⓘ (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic, Kurmanji, Mizrahi and Classical Hebrew)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar stop ⓘ (in Chechen, Tamazight and Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless bilabial stop [pˤ] (in Kurmanji, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiced bilabial stop [bˤ] (in Chechen, Ubykh, Siwa, Shihhi Arabic and Iraqi Arabic, allophonic in Adyghe and Kabardian)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular stop [qˤ] (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular stop [ɢˤ] (in Tsakhur)
- pharyngealized glottal stop [ʔˤ] (in Shihhi Arabic; allophonic in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless velar plosive [kˤ] (in Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced velar plosive [ɡˤ] (in Sorani[8])
Fricatives
edit- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar sibilant ⓘ (in Chechen, Kurmanji, Arabic, Classical Hebrew and Northern Berber)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar sibilant ⓘ (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃˤ] (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒˤ] (in Kabyle and Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless dental fricative [θˤ] (in Zenaga, Shawiya and Shehri)
- pharyngealized voiced dental fricative ⓘ (in Arabic ظ, and as [θ̬ˤ], a variant pronunciation in Mehri)
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar lateral fricative ⓘ
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative ⓘ (in Soqotri, a variant pronunciation in Mehri, and postulated for Classical Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless labiodental fricative [fˤ] (in Sorani[8])
- pharyngealized voiced labiodental fricative [vˤ] (in Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative [χˤ] (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, Archi and Bzyb Abkhaz)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular fricative [ʁˤ] (in Ubykh, Tsakhur and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiceless glottal fricative [hˤ] (in Tsakhur)
Affricates
edit- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar affricate [tsˤ] (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar affricate [dzˤ] (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃˤ] (in Chechen and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒˤ] (in Chechen)
Trills
edit- pharyngealized voiced alveolar trill [rˁ] (in Kabyle, Chechen and Siwa)
Nasals
edit- pharyngealized bilabial nasal [mˤ] (in Chechen, Ubykh, Moroccan Darija, and Iraqi Arabic)
- pharyngealized alveolar nasal [nˤ] (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized uvular nasal [ɴˤ] (in Kusunda)
Approximants
edit- pharyngealized labialized velar approximant [wˤ] (in Shihhi Arabic, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant [lˤ] (in Kabyle, Chechen, English, and Northern Standard Dutch)
- pharyngealized labialized postalveolar approximant [ɹ̠ˤʷ] (an /r/ variant in American English)
- pharyngealized velar approximant [ɹ̈ˤ], with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum (in some dialects of American English and Dutch)
Examples of pharyngealized vowels
edit- pharyngealized vowels [ʊˤː oˤ oˤː ʌˤː ɔˤː aˤː] in Chemnitz German
- pharyngealized vowels [ɪˤ ɜˤ ʊˤ ɛˤ ~ æˤ ɐˤ ~ aˤ ɔˤ aˤ ~ ɑˤ] in the Air Tamajeq language
- pharyngealized vowels [iˤ uˤ oˤ ɑˤ] in Even
- pharyngealized vowels [iˤ uˤ eˤ əˤ oˤ aˤ] in Tsakhur
- pharyngealized vowels [iˤ uˤ ɛˤ ɔˤ ɑˤ] in Udi
- pharyngealized vowels [ĩˤ ũˤ ãˤ eˤ oˤ aˤ] in Mambay (Mangbai)
- pharyngealized vowels [iˤ uˤ eˤ oˤ aˤ] in ǃXóõ
Notes
edit- ↑ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 365. Notably, Ladefoged & Maddieson use ⟨ˤ⟩ for pharyngealization in other parts of the book, specifically pp. 306–311.
- ↑ Esling et al. (2019), pp. 168–169.
- ↑ International Phonetic Association (1999:172–173)
- ↑ Ladefoged (2005:183)
- ↑ Recasens & Espinosa (2005:4)
- ↑ McCarthy, John (1994). "The phonetics and phonology of Semitic pharyngeals". In Keating, Patricia A. (ed.). Phonological structure and phonetic form: papers in laboratory phonology III. Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–233. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511659461.012.
- ↑ Shahin, Kimary (1996). "Accessing pharyngeal place in Palestinian Arabic". In Eid, Mushira; Parkinson, Dilworth B. (eds.). Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics: Papers from the Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics. Vol. 9. pp. 131–149. doi:10.1075/cilt.141.10sha. ISBN 9781556195969.
- 1 2 Asadpour & Mohammadi (2014), p. 109.
References
edit- Esling, John H.; Moisik, Scott R.; Benner, Allison; Crevier-Buchman, Lise (2019). Voice Quality: The Laryngeal Articulator Model. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108696555. ISBN 9781108696555.
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- Ladefoged, Peter (2005). Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.). Blackwell.
- Recasens, Daniel; Espinosa, Aina (2005). "Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1017/S0025100305001878. S2CID 14140079.
- International Phonetic Association, ed. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.