Wikipedia

Health in Namibia

Since independence in 1990, Namibia's health indicators have improved in several areas, including child mortality and some communicable-disease outcomes, although HIV/AIDS remains a significant public-health issue, along with tuberculosis and periodic cholera outbreaks. Namibia also faces a growing burden of non-communicable diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, alcohol-related disease and cancers, as well as public-health concerns such as albinism-related skin cancer risk and child stunting. The country has a dual health system consisting of a publicly financed network of outreach points, clinics, health centres and hospitals that serves most of the population, and a smaller private sector that provides many specialised services, but access to care, workforce distribution and out-of-pocket costs is uneven. Recent national strategies and WHO-supported plans have focused on maternal, newborn and adolescent health, HIV control and strengthening primary care.[1][2][3][4][5]

Health care system

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Namibia's health care system is based on primary health care and led by the Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS).[5][6][7] It covers the country through 14 health regions and 34 districts.[5][6][7][8] Although Namibia invests relatively heavily in health and has a tiered public system, it nonetheless faces severe health‑workforce shortages similar to those across Africa, in the WHO African Region the stock of health workers grew from 1.6 million to 5.1 million between 2013 and 2022, including about 850,000 community health workers, yet a projected shortfall of 6.1 million workers is anticipated by 2030.[9][10][11]

The four‑tier public system

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Namibia's public health system is organised into four service-delivery tiers, outreach points, health centres, district hospitals, and intermediate and referral hospitals.[5][8][12][13][14] These facilities are intended to provide progressively more specialised care, with primary health care services at the community and health-centre levels and referral care at higher-level hospitals.[5][12][13][14]

Former German Military Hospital in Gobabis

The Ministry of Health and Social Services manages the system through national, regional, and district administrative levels.[5][13][14][15] This structure is designed to extend access across a sparsely populated country and to link preventive, promotive, curative, and rehabilitative services within the public sector.[13][14][15]

Facilities

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Kolmanskop hospital, Lüderitz (Namibia)

Namibia has 36 hospitals (district, intermediate, and referral), 56 health centres, over 300 clinics, and more than 1,150 outreach points.[6][7] The capital Windhoek has cardiac theaters at two different hospitals, the Windhoek Central State Hospital and the Roman Catholic Hospital.[16] Both units were opened in 2010 and 2011, respectively, and have been used to perform open-heart surgery, partly with the assistance of foreign personnel.[16] The Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) announced plans to install oxygen generation systems at selected hospitals in 2025.[17]

Gobabis Private Hospital

Namibia's public health system has a relatively extensive infrastructure, however, access remains uneven, with cost constituting a significant barrier for lower-income populations.[12] Additionally, due to Namibia's low population density, 87.1 % of the population lives within 10 km of a health facility, but this drops to 73.3 % in rural areas, meaning roughly one‑in‑four rural Namibians must travel more than 10 km to reach care.[5][18][19]

Specialized treatments, including dialysis and organ transplantation, are primarily provided by private medical institutions, limiting their availability to much of the population.[12]

Medical personnel

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Doctor examining a patient at Naankuse Lifeline Clinic

Namibia is classified by WHO as a 'capacity category 4' country with relatively high health‑worker density and training capacity, although it still has unmet workforce needs within the context of the region's overall shortage.[9][10][11] Namibia's health workforce capacity is estimated at about 3 health workers per 1,000 population, which a 2023 sector brief notes is above the minimum density recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for essential services.[15] However, the same assessment highlights substantial imbalances in how personnel are distributed across the health system, around 80% of the population who rely on public services are catered for by only 38% of health professionals, while many physicians also practise in the private sector and dual practice is not comprehensively regulated.[15]

The sector brief describes persistent shortages of specialised staff in the public sector.[15] For example, public intensive care capacity is limited to 18 beds at three state hospitals, while the private sector has 67 ICU beds, mostly in Windhoek and the northern regions.[15] Public nephrology services are described as inadequate, with dialysis offered in only two public hospitals and no kidney transplantation services available in the public sector, so all patients requiring transplantation are referred to South Africa.[15] There is reported to be only one audiologist in the public system and a shortage of eye doctors, while mental health services rely on two public mental-health centres and lack a dedicated detoxification unit.[15] According to the same source, many specialised services are therefore outsourced to private facilities, and patients are sometimes referred abroad for treatment.[15]

To address human resource challenges, the Ministry of Health and Social Services has introduced measures such as improved remuneration, efforts to create a more conducive working environment, and the expansion of health-related institutions of higher learning, including the School of Medicine at the University of Namibia, which opened in 2009 and produced its first medical graduates in 2016.[15]

Financing and spending

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Namibia's health financing is split across a tax-funded public sector, voluntary private medical aid, and direct household payments, with the public system covering most of the population and private insurance covering a much smaller share.[6][20][21] Public spending remains the main source of care for the majority, while out-of-pocket costs still form a substantial part of current health expenditure, helping to explain why affordability remains a major barrier to access.[21][22][23] Total health spending has also remained relatively high as a share of GDP, at about 9.3% in 2022, indicating that Namibia allocates substantial resources to health even though access and equity problems persist.[24][25]

Controversies

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Health care system disparity received public attention in 2010 following the death of Namibian singer and liberation figure Jackson Kaujeua from renal failure, after he was reportedly unable to afford private medical care and did not receive dialysis treatment.[26][27]

The Namibian reports that several medical specialisations, for instance rheumatology, endocrinology, and oncology, have only one practitioner in Namibia.[28]

Health status

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Health indicators Bar chart
Key health indicators
Public health care coverage83%
Private health care coverage17%
Health expenditure8.9% of GDP (2020)
Health workers3 per 1,000 population
Hospitals36
Health centres56
Clinicsover 300
Outreach pointsover 1,150
Under-5 mortality41 per 1,000 live births (2023)
Fertility rate3.21 births per woman (2023)

Namibia conducts national Demographic and Health Surveys (NDHS) roughly every five years to monitor key indicators such as fertility, maternal and child health, nutrition, and HIV prevalence.[5][29] These surveys are designed to be comparable with international data and form the main source of population‑level evidence on the country's health status.[29] Despite gains in several health indicators in recent decades, Namibia continues to face challenges typical of a lower‑middle‑income country with a high burden of HIV and tuberculosis.[30][15] The country also experiences widespread income inequality and uneven access to health services between urban and rural areas.[31][32] Namibia's life expectancy at birth remains below the global average, reflecting the combined impact of infectious diseases, poverty, and structural inequities in development.[32][33] These structural inequities are shaped in part by Namibia's history of colonialism and conflict, which produced uneven regional development and persistent disparities in health outcomes.[34][35]

Life expectancy

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Life expectancy by WBG - Namibia

Life expectancy in the territory now comprising Namibia rose from about 41 years in 1950 to the early‑to‑mid‑60s by 1990, fell in the 1990s–2000s largely because of HIV/AIDS, and later recovered to higher levels by the 2010s–2020s, though it remains below the highest global life expectancies.[1][36] Compared with its neighbors, Namibia's life expectancy has generally been higher than Angola's, similar to or slightly below South Africa's in recent years, and lower than Botswana's by a modest to noticeable margin, while Zimbabwe has often been in a similar range.[33][37]

Under 5 infant mortality

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Child in Namibia

Under‑5 mortality in Namibia has declined substantially over recent decades, reflecting broader improvements in child health and access to medical care.[38] According to UN‑IGME‑aligned estimates, Namibia's under‑5 mortality rate fell from about 74 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 41 per 1,000 live births by 2023, indicating a more than 40% reduction over that period.[38] National‑level data from the World Bank's "Mortality rate, under‑5 (per 1,000 live births) Namibia" series corroborate this downward trend, recording Namibian under‑5 mortality at around the low‑40s per 1,000 live births in the early 2020s.[38][39]

Globally, the under‑5 mortality rate declined by about 59% between 1990 and 2019, from around 93 deaths per 1,000 live births to about 38 per 1,000.[40] However, Namibia fares better than the average for sub‑Saharan Africa, where under‑5 mortality rates have historically been higher due to persistent challenges in health‑system coverage and socioeconomic conditions.[38][39][40] Namibia's under‑5 mortality remains above the global average and also above the target set by Sustainable Development Goal 3.2, which aims to reduce the under‑5 mortality rate to no more than 25 per 1,000 live births by 2030.[38][41]

Fertility Rate

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The daughters of a small community of bushmen living in Namibia. The baby boy is the girl's brother.

As of 2023, Namibia's total fertility rate stands at 3.21 births per woman, according to the World Bank (as compiled by the St. Louis Fed FRED database), this reflects a long-term decline since the World Bank's data series for Namibia began in 1960.[42][43] The fertility rate peaked at 6.56 births per woman in 1973 within the available data, then fell steadily over successive decades.[42][43] The drop has continued in recent years: from 3.40 in 2019, to 3.35 in 2020, 3.30 in 2021, 3.25 in 2022, and 3.21 in 2023.[42][43] While Namibia's current fertility rate remains above the replacement level of about 2.1 children per woman, today's figure of 3.21 is less than half the peak recorded in the 1970s, marking a substantial demographic shift over the past half-century.[42][43][44]

Health conditions and risk factors

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Communicable diseases

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Cholera

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The first recorded cholera outbreak in Namibia occurred from December 2006 to February 2007, with more than 250 cases reported from the Omusati and Kunene regions.[45][46]

A larger cholera outbreak occurred from November 2013 to February 2014, affecting four northern regions (Kunene, Omusati, Oshana, and Ohangwena) with 504 cases and 16 deaths (case fatality rate: 3.17%).[47][48][49]

After ten years without confirmed cases, the Ministry of Health and Social Services confirmed one cholera case on 10 March 2025, a 55-year-old woman who presented at Opuwo District Hospital in Kunene Region with severe diarrhea, recovered, and was discharged.[50][51][52] The Ministry of Health officially declared a cholera outbreak in Opuwo Health District, Kunene Region on 19 June 2025 following 18 suspected cases (9 confirmed).[53][54][55] The Ministry of Health conducted Namibia's first-ever Early Action Review for cholera from 21 to 23 July 2025, supported by WHO, to coordinate containment efforts and mitigate impact on affected communities.[54] Namibia declared the end of the Opuwo cholera outbreak in August 2025 after 28 days with no new cases.[54][56] However, a second cholera outbreak was declared in Grootfontein District, Otjozondjupa Region on 24 November 2025.[57][58] As of 12 January 2026, the second outbreak had 99 suspected cases and 32 confirmed cases with zero deaths reported, though transmission continued.[59][60][61]

Coronavirus

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During the COVID-19 pandemic the country had its first confirmed cases on 14 March 2020. Government shut down air travel to and from Qatar, Ethiopia and Germany on the same day, closed all public and private schools, and prohibited large gatherings. This included celebrations for the 30th anniversary of Namibian independence that took place on 21 March 2020.[62] Libraries, museums, and art galleries were also closed.[63] On 28 March 2020, the country went into a full lockdown.

Over the following period, several lockdowns of varying severity were defined and imposed as reaction to case and death numbers. Namibia reported a total number of infections of 172,557[64] (updated 6 June 2026) and a total number of COVID-related deaths of 4,110[64] (updated 6 June 2026).

Post-COVID-19, African health systems including Namibia's have prioritized building resilience through integrated public health functions, community health workforce expansion, and pandemic preparedness planning.[65]

HIV/AIDS

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Death rate from HIV/AIDS in Namibia 2021

HIV has had a profound impact on Namibia's health and life expectancy, with the epidemic peaking in the early 2000s before significant progress was made through antiretroviral therapy (ART) scale-up and prevention programs.[66][67] In 2023, approximately 9.7% of adults aged 15–49 were living with HIV, with prevalence higher among women (12.7%) than men (6.6%).[66][68] There were an estimated 6,049 new HIV infections and 3,659 AIDS-related deaths in Namibia in 2023, representing roughly a 50% reduction in new infections and deaths since 2013.[66][68][69] Mother-to-child transmission has declined dramatically: in 2023, 96% of babies born to HIV-positive mothers were HIV-free, meaning only 4% were infected, down from over 30% in the pre-ART era before 2003.[66] Namibia has achieved strong progress in the HIV treatment area, in 2024, 93% of people living with HIV knew their status, 95% of those diagnosed were on antiretroviral therapy, and 98% of those on treatment were virally suppressed.[66][68]

Pediatric HIV care remains a gap, while 100% of children diagnosed with HIV are on treatment and 90% are virally suppressed, only 76% of children living with HIV know their status.[66] The Namibia Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (NAMPHIA) in 2017 confirmed that 77% of all HIV-positive adults were virally suppressed, demonstrating substantial progress toward epidemic control.[70][67] Gender disparities persist, women aged 15–49 are about twice as likely to live with HIV as men, reflecting higher biological and social vulnerability.[66][71][68] Geographic hotspots exist, with the Zambezi Region showing higher HIV incidence rates than the national average, indicating a need for regionally targeted prevention efforts.[72]

Namibia hosted its first National AIDS Conference in 2016, marking a milestone in national leadership and multi-stakeholder engagement in the HIV response.[73][74] Since 2016, the Namibian government has procured its own antiretroviral drugs, signaling increased domestic investment in the HIV response.[75][74] Despite domestic progress, Namibia remains dependent on external donors such as PEPFAR and the Global Fund for critical HIV program funding, and recent U.S. funding cuts have raised concerns about sustainability of services.[75][76][74] PEPFAR has supported Namibia's HIV response through testing campaigns, ART scale-up, viral load monitoring, health system strengthening, and differentiated service delivery models, including community-based and youth-focused interventions.[77][67][76] UNAIDS has recognized Namibia's progress in increasing ART access and moving toward epidemic control, highlighting the country as a regional example of effective HIV response in sub-Saharan Africa.[73][67] Key challenges remain in closing the pediatric diagnosis gap, addressing stigma and discrimination, reaching key and vulnerable populations, and ensuring sustainable financing amid global funding uncertainties.[76][75][78]

Leprosy

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There is a small group of approximately 60 leprosy sufferers in the Kavango and Caprivi Region, most of them concentrated at Mashare, east of Rundu. Until the early 1980s this settlement contained a leprosarium of considerable size for thousands of patients from South-West Africa and its neighbours Angola and Botswana.[79]

Incidence of malaria in Namibia.

Malaria

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The malaria problem seems to be compounded by the AIDS epidemic. Research has shown that in Namibia the risk of contracting malaria is 14.5% greater if a person is also infected with HIV. The risk of death from malaria is also raised by approximately 50% with a concurrent HIV infection.[80]

Tuberculosis

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Namibia has a high rate of tuberculosis sufferers; Overall, approximately 0.7 cases are reported per 1,000 inhabitants. In 2018, 8,000 infections occurred, and almost 700 people died. A hotspot of the disease is the coastal town of Walvis Bay where cold weather aids TB infections.[81] Of particular concern are multi and extensively drug-resistant bacteria strains.[82]

Non‑communicable diseases

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Namibia is undergoing an epidemiological transition as non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and chronic respiratory diseases, rapidly increase in burden alongside persistent infectious disease challenges, with sub-Saharan Africa expected to see NCDs surpass communicable diseases as the leading cause of mortality by 2030, driven by hypertension (47% prevalence), obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and air pollution, and accounting for 85% of premature NCD deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries.[83] The country's primary health care strategy to combat noncommunicable diseases have been informed by regional examples such as Botswana's 2016 national PHC guidelines, which integrated NCD screening, risk stratification, and management into primary care with standardized clinical algorithms, multimethod provider training, and inclusion in the national development plan.[84]

The Demographic and Health Survey (2013) summarises findings on elevated blood pressure, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity:[85]

  • Among eligible respondents age 35–64, more than 4 in 10 women (44 percent) and men (45 percent) have elevated blood pressure or are currently taking medicine to lower their blood pressure.
  • Forty-nine percent of women and 61 percent of men are not aware that they have elevated blood pressure.
  • Forty-three percent of women and 34 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication for their condition.
  • Only 29 percent of women and 20 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication and have their blood pressure under control.
  • Six percent of women and 7 percent of men are diabetic. An additional 7 percent of women and 6 percent of men are prediabetic.
  • Sixty-seven percent of women and 74 percent of men with diabetes are taking medication to lower their blood glucose.

Albinism

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Albinism is a genetic disorder with reduced or absent melanin production. It affects about 38,000 Namibians (1.3% of the population), per the 2023 Census and Housing Main Report. The Oshikoto region has the highest concentration at over 1.6%.[86] Hardap has the lowest at 0.8%. The condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. It causes little or no pigmentation in the eyes, hair, and skin. It also causes vision problems: crossed eyes, light sensitivity, and impaired vision.[86][87]

Child with albinism.

Due to Namibia's climate, people with albinism face higher risks of severe sunburn and skin cancer. At Windhoek Central Hospital, skin cancer admissions rose from about 3 to 7 children annually.[88][89] The problem is especially serious in northern regions, notably the two Kavango regions. There, some parents lack education on caring for albino children.[89]

Misconceptions from cultural beliefs and misinformation have fueled stigma.[87][90] In some parts of Africa, people with albinism are assaulted or killed for body parts used in witchcraft rites or "lucky" charms.[90]

People with albinism in Namibia must make specific lifestyle adaptations due to extreme weather, the country has about 300 days of sunshine annually.[91][87][88] Children with albinism are regularly teased at school. Despite outreach activities, some parents still hide their affected children from society.[87][91][88]

In recent years, to investigate discrimination of people living with alinism the Ombudsman's Office launched a national inquiry in 2020/21[92] Following the 2022 Report Namibia began developing a National Action Plan for persons with albinism.[93][94] Under Namibian law, people with albinism are protected from discrimination at work and in public services.[86][87]

Cancer

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Due to exposure to sunshine and prevalence of albinism, the most widespread cancer in Namibia is skin cancer, with 581 cases reported in 2010 and 417 cases in 2011. The second most prevalent cancer is Kaposi's sarcoma, a disease related to HIV/AIDS, with 251 reported cases in 2011.[95]

Mental health

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Mental disorders contribute significantly to the disease burden in Namibia, with an estimated 12–13% of the population experiencing psychological distress.[96][97] Despite this burden, mental health has historically received very little research in Namibia to inform policy and interventions.[98][99] A 2021 review identified 14 published studies on mental health in pre- and post-independent Namibia, with most research focused on depression and little on other mental illnesses.[98][99]

Policy and legislation

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Namibia’s mental health framework has long been based on the Mental Health Act No. 18 of 1973, a South African–era law.[99][100] Health Minister Dr. Esperance Luvindao presented the 2025 Mental Health Bill to Namibia's National Assembly to replace the old 1973 Mental Health Act and address the country's severe mental health crisis with over 100,000 patients who have sought treatment and more than 540 suicides in 2024/2025, but no vote date has been set yet.[101][97][100] The 2025 Mental Health Bill places emphasis on suicide prevention and addressing rising suicide rates.[102][103][97]

Service provision and infrastructure

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The Mental Health Care Centre at Windhoek Central Hospital is Namibia’s oldest and main psychiatric facility, operating since 1903 with a bed capacity of 200.[100][97] The centre uses a bio-psycho-social model of care and serves as the country’s main referral centre for mental disorders, accepting patients from all regions.[100][98]

Injuries and risk factors

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Alcohol abuse

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Harmful alcohol use is a major public health problem in Namibia, with per‑capita alcohol consumption of 12 L of pure alcohol per year (ages 15+), more than double the global average (5.0 L) and more than three times the African regional average (3.5 L).[104] In 2022, Namibia's annual per‑capita beer consumption was 85 L, ranking seventh in the world.[105] Alcohol contributes substantially to preventable deaths, particularly from liver cirrhosis (up to 44% of female and 11% of male cirrhosis deaths are alcohol-attributable).[106]

Alcohol is responsible for a large share of road traffic injury deaths, with up to 25% of female and 19% of male such deaths attributable to alcohol.[106] Alcohol use increases the risk of several cancers (liver, mouth, throat, esophagus, colon, breast), accounting for 5.9% of cancer deaths in males and 1.8% in females.[106] It is a key risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, heart attacks, strokes), which are significant in the WHO African Region.[107] Non‑communicable diseases (NCDs), for which alcohol is a major risk factor, contributes to an estimated 41% of all deaths in Namibia.[104]

Consumption is especially high in the northern regions (Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, and Oshikoto), where 11.8% of total expenditure is allocated to all alcoholic beverages.[108][105] In the south, the coast, and the Omaheke region, alcohol expenditure is 10.4%, while Windhoek allocates only 7.9%.[108][105] Nationwide, alcohol accounts for about 10% of household spending.[105] Beer alone is the second‑heaviest item in the Namibia Consumer Price Index after rent, making up 7% of the total basket.[105]

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The vast majority (87%) of Namibian children do not obtain the minimum acceptable diet as defined by the World Health Organization. About a quarter[109] to a third[110] of all children are stunted, which impacts on their overall development and health. Furthermore, 7% are wasted, and 4% are overweight.[109]

References

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  2. ↑ "Global spending on health: Weathering the storm". World Health Organization. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  3. ↑ "Health Expenditure Profile Namibia". Global Health Expenditure Data Base. World Health Organization. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
  4. ↑ "Human Rights Measurement Initiative – The first global initiative to track the human rights performance of countries". humanrightsmeasurement.org. Retrieved 2022-03-26.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Christians, Felicia (2020-01-27). "Country profile – Primary healthcare and family medicine in Namibia". African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine. 12 (1): 3. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v12i1.2242. ISSN 2071-2936.
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  19. ↑ Dlamini, Matthew (2024-12-05). "87% of Namibians have access to healthcare". The Namibian. Retrieved 2026-05-16.
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  22. ↑ "Namibia". P4H Network. 2024-09-07. Retrieved 2026-05-14.
  23. ↑ "Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) - Namibia". DataBank. Global Health Expenditure Database. World Bank. 2025-12-12. Retrieved 2026-05-14.
  24. ↑ "Namibia Health spending as percent of GDP - data, chart". TheGlobalEconomy.com. Retrieved 2026-05-14.
  25. ↑ "Current health expenditure (% of GDP) - Namibia". DataBank. Global Health Expenditure Database. World Bank. 2025-12-12. Retrieved 2026-05-14. World Health Organization Global Health Expenditure database
  26. ↑ Ekongo, John (2010-05-31). "Hamba kahle, Jackson Kaujeua". New Era. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.
  27. ↑ Isaacs, Denver (16 February 2010). "False rumours about Kaujeua". The Namibian.
  28. ↑ Petersen, Shelleygan (15 June 2023). "One Doctor per 1,000 Patients". The Namibian. pp. 1–2.
  29. 1 2 "Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2013" (PDF). Government of Namibia. 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
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  31. ↑ "Namibia | World Bank Group". www.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2026-05-19.
  32. 1 2 "World Population Prospects". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 2026-05-19.
  33. 1 2 "Namibia - WHO Data". WHO Data. Retrieved 14 May 2026.
  34. ↑ Oluwaseun, Adeniran Sunday; Idowu, Daniel Onisanwa (2024). "INCOME INEQUALITY AND HEALTH OUTCOMES IN NIGERIA". Journal of Economics and Allied Research. 9 (3): 84–96. ISSN 3043-6591.
  35. ↑ "Demographic Dividend Study Report 2018 – Towards Maximising the Demographic Dividend in Namibia" (PDF). National Planning Commission of Namibia. 2018. Retrieved 2026-05-19.
  36. ↑ "Life expectancy, years: Namibia". gapminder.org. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
  37. ↑ "Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Namibia". World Bank Data. Retrieved 14 May 2026.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 "Levels & Trends in Child Mortality: Report 2024 - World | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2025-03-25. Retrieved 2026-05-17.
  39. 1 2 World Bank – Mortality rate, under‑5 (per 1,000 live births) – Namibia
  40. 1 2 Sharrow, David; Hug, Lucia; You, Danzhen; Alkema, Leontine; Black, Robert; Cousens, Simon; Croft, Trevor; Gaigbe-Togbe, Victor; Gerland, Patrick; Guillot, Michel; Hill, Kenneth; Masquelier, Bruno; Mathers, Colin; Pedersen, Jon; Strong, Kathleen L (2022-02-01). "Global, regional, and national trends in under-5 mortality between 1990 and 2019 with scenario-based projections until 2030: a systematic analysis by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation". The Lancet Global Health. 10 (2): e195–e206. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00515-5. ISSN 2214-109X. PMC 8789561. PMID 35063111.
  41. ↑ "Child mortality (under 5 years)". www.who.int. Retrieved 2026-05-17.
  42. 1 2 3 4 "Fertility Rate, Total for Namibia". fred.stlouisfed.org. 2026-04-14. Retrieved 2026-05-17.
  43. 1 2 3 4 "World Bank Open Data". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 2026-05-17.
  44. ↑ Searchinger, Tim; Hanson, Craig; Waite, Richard; Lipinski, Brian; Leeson, George (2013-07-08). "Achieving Replacement Level Fertility". World Resources Institute.
  45. ↑ Smith, A. M.; Keddy, K. H.; De Wee, L. (September 2008). "Characterization of cholera outbreak isolates from Namibia, December 2006 to February 2007". Epidemiology and Infection. 136 (9): 1207–1209. doi:10.1017/S0950268807009685. ISSN 0950-2688. PMC 2870929. PMID 17963590.
  46. ↑ Smith, A. M.; Keddy, K. H.; Wee, L. De (September 2008). "Characterization of cholera outbreak isolates from Namibia, December 2006 to February 2007". Epidemiology & Infection. 136 (9): 1207–1209. doi:10.1017/S0950268807009685. ISSN 1469-4409.
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  48. ↑ "Concerns in Namibia as cholera outbreak reaches nation's capital - Namibia | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2014-03-21. Retrieved 2026-05-31.
  49. ↑ Tjihenuna, Theresia (10 January 2014). "Cholera death toll rises to eight". The Namibian.
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  51. ↑ Madeline (2025-03-14). "Recent cholera case classified as an outbreak". Nova. Retrieved 2026-05-31.
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  56. ↑ "Namibia declares end to cholera, malaria outbreaks". english.news.cn. Retrieved 2026-05-31.
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  76. 1 2 3 "Impact of US funding cuts on HIV programmes in Namibia | UNAIDS". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 2026-05-30.
  77. ↑ "National AIDS Conference in Swakopmund". U.S. Embassy in Namibia. U.S. Embassy in Namibia. 28 November 2016. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
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  80. ↑ Korenromp, E.L.; Williams, B.G.; de Vlas, S.J.; Gouws, E.; Gilks, C.F.; Ghys, P.D.; Nahlen, B.L. (2005). "Malaria Attributable to the HIV-1 Epidemic, Sub-Saharan Africa". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (9): 1410–1419. doi:10.3201/eid1109.050337. PMC 3310631. PMID 16229771.
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  82. ↑ "Namibia. Country Information". World Health Organization. 2020.
  83. ↑ Bigna, Jean Joel; Noubiap, Jean Jacques (October 2019). "The rising burden of non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan Africa". The Lancet Global Health. 7 (10): e1295–e1296. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30370-5. PMID 31537347. Retrieved 2026-05-29.
  84. ↑ Tapela, Neo M.; Tshisimogo, Gontse; Shatera, Bame P. (February 2019). "Integrating noncommunicable disease services into primary health care, Botswana". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 97 (2): 142–153. doi:10.2471/BLT.18.221424. PMC 6357568. PMID 30728620.
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  88. 1 2 3 "Disability, Albinism, and Climate Change in Namibia". Climate Justice Africa Magazine. 2025-11-21. Retrieved 2026-05-18.
  89. 1 2 Kapitako, Alvine (13 June 2018). "Cancer, not discrimination, threatens Namibian albinos". New Era.
  90. 1 2 Unknown (2017-06-27). "THE RIGHTS OF PEOPLE WITH ALBINISM: A CONCEPTUAL AND RIGHTS BASED COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS". Academia.edu. Retrieved 2026-05-18.
  91. 1 2 "Eva Ndatipo comfortable in her own skin". New Era. 30 October 2015. Archived from the original on October 31, 2015.
  92. ↑ Network (AAN), Africa Albinism (2023-11-22). "Championing Albinism Rights in Namibia: A Learning and Collaboration Forum with Human Rights Defenders - Africa Albinism Network". Retrieved 2026-05-18.
  93. ↑ Hembapu, Otniel (2024-11-14). "38 000 Namibians live with albinism". New Era. Retrieved 2026-05-18.
  94. ↑ "UNDERSTANDING Albinism" (PDF). Office of the Ombudsman, Namibia. 2022. Retrieved 2026-05-18.
  95. ↑ Kapitako, Alvine (7 February 2013). "Skin cancer rife in Namibia". New Era.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
  96. ↑ Bartholomew, Theodore T.; Gentz, Shelene G. (September 2019). ""How Can We Help You": Mental Health Practitioners' Experiences of Service Provision in Northern Namibia". Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry. 43 (3): 496–518. doi:10.1007/s11013-019-09633-w. ISSN 1573-076X. PMID 31079350.
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  100. 1 2 3 4 "Mental Health Care". wch.gov.na. Windhoek Central Hospital. Retrieved 1 June 2026.
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  102. ↑ "Mental Health Bill steers Namibia to compliance with IPU's universal access in healthcare". Namibian of Parliament. Retrieved 2026-06-01.
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  104. 1 2 "Namibia eyes tobacco, alcohol tax reforms to combat public health crisis". english.news.cn. Retrieved 2026-05-20.
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  107. ↑ "Alcohol | WHO | Regional Office for Africa". www.afro.who.int. 2026-05-19. Retrieved 2026-05-20.
  108. 1 2 Xoagub, Francis (4 August 2011). "Alcohol abuse up". New Era. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012.
  109. 1 2 Shikongo, Arlana (17 October 2019). "280 000 Namibian children undernourished". The Namibian.
  110. ↑ Tjihenuna, Theresia (2 April 2014). "More than 1 million Namibians defecate in open". The Namibian. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
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