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Swein Forkbeard

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Swein Forkbeard (also Sveinn Haraldsson, Sveinn Tjúguskegg,[1] Sven Forkbeard,[2] Swen Forkbeard,[3] Sweyn Forkbeard,[4] Swegen Forkbeard;[5] died 3 February 1014) was King of Denmark, from c. 986, overlord of Norway,[a] c. 986 – c. 994 and from c.1000, and briefly King of England from December 1013.

Swein Forkbeard
Image of Swein's name
Swein's name in manuscript C of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
King of Denmark
Reignc. 986 – 3 February 1014
PredecessorHarald Bluetooth
SuccessorHarald II
King of England
ReignDecember 1013 – 3 February 1014
PredecessorÆthelred the Unready
SuccessorÆthelred the Unready
Died(1014-02-03)3 February 1014
Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, England
Burial
Roskilde
SpouseSister of Boleslaus, ruler of Poland (name not known)
Issue
FatherHarald Bluetooth
MotherNot known

Around 986 Swein revolted against his father, King Harald Bluetooth, and seized the throne of Denmark. Harald was driven into exile and died shortly afterwards. In 992 or 993 Swein defeated an invasion by Erik, King of the Svear in eastern Sweden. Swein probably became overlord of the Svear and Erik died in the war or soon afterwards. In 994 Swein raided England together with the Norwegian warlord, Olaf Tryggvason, until they were paid off by a tribute of 16,000 pounds. Swein had inherited the overlordship of Norway from his father, but Olaf challenged Swein's control and was recognised by many Norwegian magnates as king. In 999 or 1000, Swein defeated Olaf at the naval Battle of Svold; Olaf was killed in the battle and Swein recovered control of Norway. Swein returned to England in 1003 and ravaged until 1005, when a major famine forced him to return to Denmark.

Swein is not known to have returned to England until 1013, when he invaded intent on conquest and seizure of the English throne. By December he had achieved full control and was acknowledged as king. After celebrating Christmas on the Isle of Wight, Æthelred the Unready, the Anglo-Saxon king of England, fled to his brother-in-law in Normandy. Swein's reign was very brief as he died on 3 February 1014.

Swein married the sister of Boleslaw, ruler of Poland, and had three known children by her: King Harald II of Denmark, King Cnut of England, and Estrid, the mother of Sweyn Estridsson, who became king of Denmark in 1047. Swein also had a daughter by an earlier liaison, Gytha, whose son Hakon Eriksson was born in 998.

Harald Bluetooth had converted to Christianity, and Swein carried on his pro-Christian policies, although historians disagree whether his support was motivated by religious devotion or political calculation. He is praised by historians as a great Viking warrior and an able king.

Sources

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Very little is definitely known about Swein's life. Most accounts have been based on Adam of Bremen's Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg, which dates to the 1070s. The historian Peter Sawyer states that Adam was hostile to Swein and there is much which is clearly false in his account: "Adam denigrated Swein because the latter neither recognized the German emperor as his overlord nor acknowledged the ecclesiastical authority of the archbishop of Hamburg–Bremen, which in Adam's eyes was tantamount to paganism."[8] Other historians, such as Gwyn Jones and the Danish Niels Lund, also regard Adam as very unreliable.[9] Adam claimed that Swein apostasised and persecuted the church, and as punishment by God he was defeated by KIng Erik of Sweden and spent fourteen years in exile in Scotland. Lund comments: "Adam invented his story to serve homiletic purposes rather than historical truth".[10] The chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg, who was a contemporary of Swein, was also hostile to him.[1]

The Encomium Emmae Reginae, commissioned by Swein's daughter-in-law Emma in the early 1040s, is equally biassed in the opposite direction, praising Swein.[11] Other sources include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and skaldic verses in later Icelandic sagas,[12] such as a verse which refers to Swein "bloodying swords in England with God's help".[13] Swein's byname, "Forkbeard", is first recorded around 1140 in the Roskilde Chronicle.[1]

Background

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In the ninth century, Anglo-Saxon England came under increasing attack from Viking raids, culminating in an invasion by the Great Heathen Army in 865. By 878, the Vikings had overrun the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia, and nearly conquered Wessex, but in that year the West Saxons achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington under King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899).[14] Over the next fifty years, the West Saxons and Mercians gradually conquered the Viking-ruled areas, and in 927 Alfred's grandson Æthelstan (r. 924–939) became the first king of all England when he conquered Northumbria.[15] He was succeeded by his half-brothers Edmund (r. 939–946) and Eadred (r. 946–955), who both lost control of York (southern Northumbria) at the start of their reigns, but had recovered it by the time of their deaths. There was then a generation of peace, until Viking attacks resumed with small scale raids from Scandinavia in the early 980s.[16]

Denmark's power declined in the late ninth and early tenth centuries, and its revival probably began under Swein's grandfather, Gorm the Old, who died around 958.[17] He was succeeded by his son Harald Bluetooth, who extended Danish royal authority and claimed on the inscription on the Jelling stone that he had "won the whole of Denmark for himself, and Norway, and made the Danes Christian."[18] He controlled the area around Oslofjord in Norway and was acknowledged as overlord by the most powerful Norwegian ruler, Haakon Sigurdsson, Earl of Hlathir.[1] Harald paid homage to the German emperor, Otto I, but when Otto died in 973 Harald unsuccessfully attempted to defy his son and successor, Otto II. In 982 Otto was defeated by the Muslim ruler of Sicily at the Battle of Stilo in Calabria,[19] and the following year Harald campaigned successfully against the Germans, thus removing any imminent threat of German invasion.[20] Gorm had been a pagan, but Harald converted to Christianity in the mid-960s.[21]

Life

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Early life

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Swein was a son of Harald Bluetooth and an unknown mother.[1] It is not known when Swein was born, but his grandson Hakon Eriksson was born in 998.[22]

King of Denmark and Viking raider

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Carving of Swein Forkbeard
Image of Swein in Swansea Guildhall, which opened in 1934. Swansea probably means Swein's Ey (inlet), popularly thought to be Swein Forkbeard.[23]

In 986 or 987 Swein revolted against his father with the support of sections of the nobility and seized the Danish throne. Harald was defeated and wounded in battle against his son. He was driven into exile and died of his wounds in exile shortly afterwards. In the view of Timothy Bolton, the biographer of Swein's son Cnut, the family turned in on itself, "unleashing a brief civil war that ended in a scandalous regicide and apparently leaving a deep scar on Danish memory".[24] Jones describes Harald's expulsion as an "astonishing reversal", probably due to erosion of the nobility's ancient rights and hostility to Christianity, particularly because the church was pro-German.[25]

Swein was able to extend Danish control east of the strait of Øresund into Skane in what is now southern Sweden. The main centres of Danish power shifted from Jutland to the towns of Roskilde and Lund on each side of the strait.[26] Harald and Swein unified Denmark in the second half of the tenth century, and some aristocrats lost out and joined bands of Viking raiders on England.[27] Swein was secure enough at home to become the first Scandinavian king known to have led Viking raids.[1] His armies comprised his own retainers and the bands of other Viking warlords, drawn from all over Scandinavia.[28] The main Viking target was England, which under King Æthelred the Unready was both wealthy and militarily weak, and Swein's ability to extract large amounts of tribute enhanced and extended his power in Scandinavia.[1] The Encomium states that Swein made his men "submissive and faithful to himself by manifold and generous munificence", and the Danish historian Niels Lund comments that "the world in which Swein was operating was the traditional early medieval world in which princes bought loyalty by means of gifts and political relations were maintained by a subtle blend of coercion and reward".[29]

In 991 the English suffered a devastating defeat against a Viking army at the Battle of Maldon in Essex, and they paid 10,000 pounds in tribute to get the invaders to leave. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle names the Viking leader as the Norwegian warlord Olaf Tryggvason,[30] but historians think that the Viking army was probably also led by Swein. The confirmation by King Æthelred of the will of Æthelric of Bocking between 995 and 999 refers to an allegation many years before Æthelric died that he had been involved in a plot to receive Swein in Essex when he first came to England, and this is thought to refer to the raid in 991; Sawyer suggests that Swein was the senior commander over Olaf.[31]

The Svear in eastern Sweden resented Danish control of the trade route to the North Sea, and in 992 or 993 Erik, King of the Svear, attacked Denmark. Swein defeated the invasion and Erik died either during the war or soon afterwards. Erik was succeeded by his son Olof, whose byname "Skötkonung" means tributary king.[32] Lund and Sawyer see Olof's byname as evidence that he acknowledged Swein as his overlord,[33] but in the view of the Norwegian historian Sverre Bagge the relationship between Olof and Swein is not known.[34]

Swein and Olaf Tryggvason invaded England in 994. They unsuccessfully attacked London, and then raided around the south-east until the English agreed to pay a tribute of 16,000 pounds.[1] Swein then probably sailed west as, according to the Annales Cambriae, "Swein son of Harald" ravaged the Isle of Man.[35] King Æthelred persuaded Olaf to enter his service, and then encouraged him to return to Norway to challenge Swein's overlordship. Olaf was recognised as king by many Norwegian magnates, and Æthelred was thus successful in distracting Swein from attacking England for several years. Olaf was killed in 999 or 1000 in the naval Battle of Svold against Swein, who was supported by Olof Skötkonung and Hakon's sons.[36] Swein recovered his overlordship over Norway, and he appointed Hakon's sons, Erik Hakonsson (his son-in-law) and Swein Hakonarson to rule as jarls (earls).[37]

Southern coastal areas of England suffered from Viking raids in 997 to 999, and Swein returned in 1003.[38] He sacked Exeter, defeated local armies of Wiltshire and Hampshire, ravaged Wilton and then returned to his ships. The next year Swein attacked East Anglia, sacking Thetford and Norwich, and then met an army led by Ulfcytel. The Vikings were again victorious, but only at the expense of heavy losses, and then escaped back to their ships.[39] In 1002 King Æthelred had ordered the St Brice's Day massacre of Danish people in England, and post-Conquest chroniclers attributed Swein's return to a desire to avenge the massacre. The twelfth-century historian William of Malmesbury stated that Swein's sister Gunhilde was a victim of the massacre along with her husband Pallig.[40] Twentieth-century historians such as Frank Stenton and Gwyn Jones thought that Swein returned to avenge his sister's death,[41] but twenty-first century historians are sceptical as William is the only source for Gunhilde's existence and Pallig deserted the English before the massacre. Ann Williams and Levi Roach think that the story is a myth,[42] and Sawyer ignores Gunhilde and the massacre in his biographical article about Swein.[1] Bolton suggests that Swein led the raids on England in order to avert the danger of his subordinates making so much money that they were in a position to threaten his position in Denmark.[43]

A severe famine forced Swein to return to Denmark in 1005. The Viking army returned in 1006, and ravaged at will, defeating every English army sent against it until bought off with a tribute of 36,000 pounds. Swein is not named by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle among the Viking leaders between 1006 and 1013. Some leaders may have been his followers, but Thorkell the Tall, who ravaged England between 1009 and 1012, was an independent warlord. After extracting tribute of 48,000 pounds he went over to Æthelred with forty-five ships, and served him faithfully until the king's death in 1016.[44]

Historians do not agree whether Swein was a sincere Christian. Stenton describes him as a "nominal" and "tepid" Christian, who put himself at the head of a pagan reaction against his father's imposition of Christianity in order to seize the Danish throne,[45] and Simon Keynes describes him as "ostensibly a Christian king".[46] On the other hand, Sawyer and Lund point out that Swein continued the Christianisation of Denmark started by his father. At least three missionary bishops worked in the country during his reign, two English and one Danish, and churches were built in Roskilde and Lund.[32] Swein expelled bishops who were suffragans of Hamburg-Bremen in order to reduce German influence and replaced them with English bishops.[47]

Conquest of England

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Swein on horseback
'Swein conquers England', an illustration in Matthew Paris's Life of Edward the Confessor. Swein is the man on horseback

Swein returned to England in August 1013 with his younger son Cnut, leaving his elder son Harald to rule Denmark.[48] Unlike in his previous attacks, Swein was now intent on the full conquest of England. Some historians suggest that he invaded because he feared that Thorkell could threaten his position in Scandinavia with English support,[49] while other historians think that he just seized the opportunity presented by Thorkell's weakening of England to achieve an important conquest.[50] Lund describes Thorkell as "perhaps one of Swein's most dangerous Scandinavian enemies", but does not think that he was a threat to Swein's control of Denmark.[51]

Swein sailed to Sandwich in Kent, and, perhaps because he found the fleets of Æthelred and Thorkell off the coast, immediately sailed north to Gainsborough in Lincolnshire. The magnates of the East Midlands and the North quickly submitted to him. Swein did not allow plundering until the army was south of Watling Street, the traditional dividing line between the culturally Scandinavian Danelaw and the Anglo-Saxon south and west.[52] Oxford and Wallingford surrendered to him, but he was unable to take London, which was defended by Æthelred and Thorkell. Swein then secured the submission of the south-west at Bath, and after that the whole nation including London accepted him as king.[1] Weakened by the ravaging the country had suffered between 1006 to 1012, and by internal dissension, the English were unable to put up serious resistance to Swein's army.[53]

Æthelred spent Christmas on the Isle of Wight and then took shelter with his brother-in-law, Richard, Duke of Normandy.[54] The historians Simon Roffey and Ryan Lavelle see Richard's decision to give support and shelter to Æthelred as evidence of Norman opposition to Swein's Anglo-Danish kingdom.[55] Swein demanded and received full payment and provisions for his army for the winter.[56] Around this time, Cnut married a member of a leading northern family, Ælfgifu of Northampton, and the marriage may have been arranged by his father in order to strengthen his position in the north. Swein died suddenly on 3 February 1014.[57]

According to the Gesta Normannorum Ducum (Deeds of the Norman Dukes) by William of Jumièges, Swein left the army in England to go to Rouen and negotiated a treaty with Duke Richard whereby the Danes gained permission to sell their spoils of war in Normandy. This treaty is not recorded by other medieval chroniclers and historians disagree whether it dates to 1003, responding to the St Brice's Day massacre, or 1013, as William implies, and even whether it existed at all. Pierre Bauduin argues that the treaty was not directed against Æthelred, but was rather intended to regulate the relations between the Danes and the Normans.[58]

Coinage

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File:Coin with king's image on obverse and cross on reverse
Silver penny dated around 995, with inscription on obverse 'SVEN REX AD DENER' ('Swein King of the Danes'), reverse 'GODPINE M AN DNER ('Godwine moneyer in Denmark')'.[b] This is the earliest surviving example of the Latin alphabet in Denmark.[61]

Olaf Tryggvason issued Norwegian coins, and it was probably in response that Swein made his own Danish issue naming him as king.[1] Both issues were based on Æthelred's crux type of the mid-990s, which has a cross on the reverse. As of 994, only eight specimens of Swein's issue were known, indicating that it was on a small scale.[62] There were also much larger issues, perhaps in Lund, based on Æthelred's coinage, with blundered legends which did not name Swein as king.[63]

Death

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Swein's rule was very short-lived, as he died at Gainsborough on 3 February 1014.[1] His demise is described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a "happy event".[64] He was buried at York and may have planned to be crowned there. According to Thietmar, an unnamed English woman, perhaps Cnut's wife Ælfgifu, had the body exhumed and sent back to Denmark, where it was reburied at Roskilde.[65] The Encomium states that he was buried in a mausoleum he had had constructed for himself, in a monastery of his own foundation dedicated to the Holy Trinity, but Bolton suggests that Swein was buried in his father's mausoleum in Holy Trinity church in Roskilde.[66][c]

Aftermath

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Following Swein's death, the Danish fleet chose Cnut as king, but the English magnates recalled Æthelred. He marched north and drove Cnut out of England. The next year Æthelred's eldest surviving son, Edmund Ironside, rebelled after two of his chief allies were murdered by his father's chief adviser, Eadric Streona, and the English were in disarray when Cnut returned for his own attempt at the throne in the summer. He was aided by the defection of Eadric. Æthelred died on 23 April 1016 and rival assemblies of magnates chose Edmund and Cnut as king. Edmund carried on the fight until he was defeated at the Battle of Assandun on 18 October. The country was then divided, with Edmund holding Wessex and Cnut the country north of the Thames, but Edmund died on 30 November and Cnut became king of all England.[69]

Family

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Swein married a sister of Boleslaw, ruler of Poland, but later rejected her. Her name is not known.[d] She had three known children by Swein: Harald, who succeeded Swein as king of Denmark, Cnut and Estrid, who married one of Cnut's earls, Ulf Jarl, and was the mother of Swein Estrithssson, King of Denmark from 1047 to 1076.[71] Adam of Bremen claimed that Swein's wife was the widow of Erik of Sweden, and this is accepted by Sawyer and Bolton,[72] but rejected by Lund. Adam and Thietmar both state that Swein married Boleslaw's sister, and this is suppported by a statement in the Encomium that when Swein died her sons recalled her from Poland. Adam is the only source to state that she was Erik's widow, and Lund argues that Adam invented it to justify his claim that Swein Estrithsson's marriage to the granddaughter of Erik's wife was incestuous.[73]

Another daughter of Swein, Gytha, married Swein's ally, Erik Hakonsson, and had a son Hakon Eriksson in 998. Gytha must have been born before Swein became king of Denmark, probably not much after 980. Nothing is known of her mother.[74] Another possible daughter is recorded in the Liber Vitae of New Minster, Winchester, which lists a sister of Cnut with the garbled name Santslave, perhaps an error for Świętosława. She might be the same person as an unnamed daughter of Swein who married the equally garbled Wyrtgeorn, king of the Wends, according to the medieval chronicler John of Worcester.[75]

Reputation

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Bagge observes that Swein is scornfully dismissed in medieval sagas , which are pro-Norwegian, as "the leader of the 'soft' Danes who preferred to lick their bowls during pagan sacrifices rather than expose themselves to danger in battles". Modern historians strongly disagree, and Bagge describes Swein as "a great warrior and Viking chieftain".[76] Jones comments: "What we can believe is that [Swein] was a man of outstanding quality, and that unlike Olaf Tryggvason he was tolerant and sensible. He fostered Christianity, to which he was personally not much drawn, in a pragmatic and effective way".[77] Sawyer praises his achievements:

The evidence, though slight, is sufficient to show that Swein was a remarkable, and a remarkably successful, king. His achievements outside Denmark are better documented than those in it, but there is no reason to suppose that his triumphs abroad were matched by failure at home. His external success, especially against the English, enabled him to retain the loyalty of the warriors on whom his power ultimately depended.[1]

Notes

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  1. ↑ Swein is usually described by historians as overlord of Norway,[6] but he is occasionally described as king of Norway.[7]
  2. ↑ The Danish historians Nils Hybel and Bjorn Poulsen state that Godwine was an English moneyer who also minted coins for the kings of Sweden and Norway,[59] but Niels Lund disagrees, stating that the Scandinavian kings just copied Godwine's name when imitating English coins.[60]
  3. ↑ The Encomium says that Swein was buried in a monastery dedicated to the Holy Trinity but does not specify the town.[67] Most historians state that Swein was buried at Roskilde, but the Danish archaeologist Maria Cinthio argues that Holy Trinity in Lund is more likely. This suggestion is accepted by Martin Biddle and Birthe Kjølbye-Biddle but rejected by Bolton.[68]
  4. ↑ Swein's wife is given various names in later Scandinavian tradition, but none are accepted by historians. She is sometimes called Gunhild, which was apparently a name for Danish queens at this time. In Norse-Icelandic tradition she was Sigrid the Haughty, who is described by Jones as "non-existent". In Polish it was probably Czcirada or Świętosława.[70]

Citations

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  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Sawyer 2004.
  2. ↑ Bagge 2014, p. 23.
  3. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 32.
  4. ↑ Christiansen 1996, p. 665.
  5. ↑ Lawson 2011, p. 16.
  6. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Lund 2004; Jones 1984, p. 140.
  7. ↑ Rumble 1994, p. 338; Lawson 2011, p. 253.
  8. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Sawyer 1991, pp. 27–40.
  9. ↑ Jones 1984, p. 136; Lund 1991, pp. 137, 141-142 n. 14.
  10. ↑ Lund 2017, p. 126.
  11. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Keynes 2014a, p. 174.
  12. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Whitelock, Douglas & Tucker 1961, pp. 83–93.
  13. ↑ Lawson 2011, p. 17.
  14. ↑ Keynes & Lapidge 1983, pp. 9, 12–13.
  15. ↑ Miller 2011; Foot 2011.
  16. ↑ Stenton 1971, pp. 356–362, 364, 374–375.
  17. ↑ Sawyer 1993, p. 38.
  18. ↑ Bolton 2017, pp. 40–41.
  19. ↑ Jones 1984, pp. 128–129.
  20. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Lund 1997, p. 165.
  21. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 40.
  22. ↑ Lund 1994, p. 27.
  23. ↑ Watkins 1973, p. 478; Lloyd 1939, p. 321 n.5.
  24. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 50.
  25. ↑ Jones 1984, pp. 129–130.
  26. ↑ Sawyer 1993, p. 39.
  27. ↑ Roach 2016, pp. 117–118.
  28. ↑ Lund 1986, p. 118; Lund 1991, p. 114.
  29. ↑ Lund 1993, pp. 120–121.
  30. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Whitelock, Douglas & Tucker 1961, p. 82; Roach 2016, p. 112.
  31. ↑ Sawyer 1993, pp. 41–42; Whitelock 1930, pp. 44–45.
  32. 1 2 Sawyer 2004; Lund 1997, p. 169.
  33. ↑ Lund 1997, p. 169; Sawyer 2004.
  34. ↑ Bagge 2014, p. 33.
  35. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 56.
  36. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Lund 2004.
  37. ↑ Sawyer 1994, p. 16.
  38. ↑ Jones 1984, pp. 357–359.
  39. ↑ Roach 2016, pp. 201–202; Abels 2004.
  40. ↑ Williams 2003, pp. 52–54.
  41. ↑ Stenton 1971, p. 380; Jones 1984, pp. 358–359.
  42. ↑ Williams 2003, p. 54; Roach 2016, p. 200.
  43. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 58.
  44. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Whitelock, Douglas & Tucker 1961, pp. 87–92.
  45. ↑ Stenton 1971, pp. 375, 396–397.
  46. ↑ Keynes 2014b, p. 452.
  47. ↑ Lund 1994, p. 35.
  48. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 51; Roach 2016, p. 288.
  49. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Bolton 2017, pp. 59, 64–65.
  50. ↑ Keynes 1980, p. 223; Lavelle 2008, pp. 163–164.
  51. ↑ Lund 1986, p. 116.
  52. ↑ Lavelle 2008, pp. 164–165; Roach 2016, pp. 288–290.
  53. ↑ Keynes 1997, pp. 81–82.
  54. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Keynes 2014b, p. 452.
  55. ↑ Roffey & Lavelle 2016, p. 24.
  56. ↑ Keynes 1991, p. 110 n. 54; Whitelock, Douglas & Tucker 1961, p. 93.
  57. ↑ Bolton 2007, p. 252.
  58. ↑ Bauduin 2021, pp. 394–396, 415–416.
  59. ↑ Hybel & Poulsen 2007, p. 326 and n. 8.
  60. ↑ Lund 2004.
  61. ↑ Coin (penning), Swedish History Museum; Hybel & Poulsen 2007, p. 86.
  62. ↑ Jonsson 1994, p. 223; Naismith 2017, p. 264.
  63. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Hybel & Poulsen 2007, p. 326.
  64. ↑ Whitelock, Douglas & Tucker 1961, p. 93.
  65. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Bolton 2017, pp. 66–67; Bolton 2007, pp. 258-260 and n. 52.
  66. ↑ Bolton 2017, pp. 35, 48; Campbell 1949, p. 19.
  67. ↑ Campbell 1949, p. 19.
  68. ↑ Biddle & Kjølbye-Biddle 2016, p. 235 n. 28; Bolton 2017, p. 48 n. 77; Campbell 1949, p. 19.
  69. ↑ Stenton 1971, pp. 386–393; Williams 2003, p. 134.
  70. ↑ Lund 2017, p. 129; Jones 1984, p. 136.
  71. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Keynes 1994, pp. 62–63.
  72. ↑ Sawyer 2004; Bolton 2017, p. 32.
  73. ↑ Lund 2017, pp. 115, 120, 132, 137–138.
  74. ↑ Lund 1994, pp. 27–28.
  75. ↑ Bolton 2017, p. 33; Lund 2017, p. 129.
  76. ↑ Bagge 2014, p. 31.
  77. ↑ Jones 1984, p. 136.

Sources

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