Royal Ballet of Cambodia

"Khmer classical dance" redirects here. For similar genera of performing arts, see Lakhon Khol and Lkhon pol srey.

The Royal Ballet of Cambodia (Khmer: របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ, Robam Preah Reach Troap, lit. 'Dance of Royal Wealth') is a classical Khmer dance tradition historically performed at the Cambodian royal court. Distinguished by its codified hand gestures (kbach), elaborate gilded costumes and headdresses, and accompaniment by the Pin Peat ensemble, it was performed at royal ceremonies including coronations, weddings, funerals, and seasonal festivals. The repertoire draws on episodes from the Reamker, the Khmer adaptation of the Ramayana, and other Hindu and Buddhist mythological narratives.

Royal Ballet of Cambodia របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ
Cambodia Royal Ballet
Medium	Dance
Originating culture	Khmer

Royal Ballet of Cambodia
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage
Country	Cambodia
Reference	00060
Region	Asia and the Pacific
Inscription history
Inscription	2008 (3rd session)
List	Representative

Inscriptions dating to the seventh century record dancers attached to Khmer temples, and the tradition flourished during the Angkor period as a ritual offering to temple deities. Under the French Protectorate, the royal troupe gained international attention after performing in Paris in 1906. The tradition was severely disrupted under the Khmer Rouge regime (1975–1979), during which the vast majority of performers and teachers died or fled. Surviving artists reconstructed the tradition in refugee camps in eastern Thailand before returning to Cambodia after 1979.

Performances center on four character types: the male hero (neay rong), heroine (neang), demon (yeak), and monkey (sva), with female dancers taking most roles. The kbach hand gestures constitute a vocabulary of movement in which each position represents elements from nature or states of being. The National Dance Company of Cambodia in Phnom Penh maintains the tradition as its principal institutional custodian.

UNESCO proclaimed the Royal Ballet a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2003 and inscribed it on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008. The tradition has been a vehicle for Cambodian cultural diplomacy since the 1960s, with touring performances at diplomatic events internationally.

Etymology

Western names for this dance tradition, such as Cambodian court dance, often make reference to the royal court, as the tradition was performed and maintained by attendants of the royal palaces. As a performing art, it is formally referred to as the Royal Ballet of Cambodia (le Ballet royal du Cambodge in French) by UNESCO, Cravath, Brandon, and others in the academic field, although this term may also refer to the National Dance Company of Cambodia. The term Khmer classical dance is also used alongside "Royal Ballet of Cambodia" in publications by UNESCO and the above-mentioned authors.

In Khmer, it is formally known as Robam Preah Reach Trop (របាំព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ, lit. "dances of royal wealth") or Lakhon Preah Reach Trop (ល្ខោនព្រះរាជទ្រព្យ, lit. "theatre of royal wealth"). It is also referred to as Lakhon Luong (ល្ខោនហ្លួង, lit. "the king's theatre"). During the Lon Nol regime of Cambodia, the dance tradition was referred to as Lakhon Kbach Boran Khmer (ល្ខោនក្បាច់បូរាណខ្មែរ), lit. "Khmer theatre of the ancient style"), a term alienating it from its royal legacy.

Khmer classical dancers, as a whole, are frequently referred to as apsara dancers by laypeople; this usage would be incorrect with the modern form of the dance, as the apsara is just one type of character among others in the repertoire. Regardless, the tradition's romanticized affiliation with the apsaras and devatas of the ruins of Angkor still persists.

History

Pre-Angkor and Angkor period

Khmer dancing apsaras at the Bayon (12th century).

One of the earliest records of dance in Cambodia is from the 7th century, where performances were used as a funeral rite for kings. Ancient stone inscriptions describe thousands of apsara dancers assigned to temples and performing divine rites as well as for the public. There are five different pre-Angkor inscriptions mentioning dancers. The oldest known inscription in the Khmer language (K.600) is dated 611 on a temple where a god named with the suffix -isvara (Shiva) had merged with another with a name that denotes a tree. The offerings to the temple of one Antar include seven female dancers (jmah ge ram), six of whom are named. Save for two, all names musicians and dancers are in Sanskrit. George Cœdès dated the inscription known as K.51 to the late sixth-early seventh century (although stylistically there's a likeness with fifth century Funan inscriptions). An itemization of gifts from one Indradatta to a temple's deity, there are four legible names of female dancers (called rapam) offered: Ata, Tittaru, Ngarngor, and Kandin. The inscription of K. 138 indicates that four dancers(ram), two female and two male, were offered to a Shiva temple on a waning moon's first day. Inscription K. 155, dated to the late seventh or early eighth century, details one Chief of Granaries offerings that include nine named female dancers (rpam) and then an additional three named female dancers (rpam). Evidence for a literary basis for dance during Funana/Chenla era are found in a sixth century inscription near the Laos border by Veal Kantel, a Cambodian village. King Bhavavarman's brother-in-law offered copies of the Ramayana and Mahabharata to a temple dedicated to Shiva.

During the Angkor period, dance was ritually performed at temples. The temple performers came to be considered as apsaras, who served as entertainers and messengers to divinities. A Yasovarman I-era (889–910 CE) inscription says the king offered several "beautiful [women] dancers" as well as several "handsome, mature men skillful in dance and the other arts, well dressed and adorned with ornament.” An inscriptions dated 982 explains how those that waste their riches and pillage fields and "golden ornaments and precious stones and all that the founder has given to the farmers, to the dancers and the musicians" ultimately face retribution. On King Yasovarmann I, another inscription from the 900s says women of the "Masters of the Earth danced in his presence taking from him the rhythm which he gave them by clapping his hands" and that his glory "danced without having learned, to the sound of the songs" that came from the "wives of warriors vanquished by him.” A column uncovered at Phimeanakas features a late-12th century tribute to Queen Jayarajadevi in a poem by her younger sister, Queen Indradevi, saying in part that having upheld her (Jayarajadevi's) pledge and reached the “Buddhist fruit,” she directed her "own dancers to perform" and "give performances" from the Jataka.

Thai scholar Mattani Mojdara Rutnin states Khmer dancers presumably performed ceremonial dances to Shiva at the temple of Vimayapura, located in modern-day Thailand, and known now by the Thai name Phimai. Mattani suggests these performances may have been the origin of the Thai Phra Phirap ritual dance, which honours the spirits of dance in the Phithi Wai Kru ceremony. Scholar and author Paul Cravath learned from Thai dance authorities that Churning of the Ocean of Milk entered Siam, where the ceremony is called Chak nak Dukdamban, via Khmer performers. Cravath states the Hindu myth as carved on Angkor Wat depicts an actual performance of Khol, the masked, all-male Khmer dance drama. The people of Sukhothai most likely absorbed Khmer art, such as dance, as the Khmer terms for dance, ram and robam/ropam, emerged as Thai loanwords during this period.

Post-Angkorian and colonial era

The tradition of temple dancers declined during the 15th century, as the Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya raided Angkor. When Angkor fell, its artisans, Brahmins, and dancers were taken captive to Ayutthaya. Scholar Xenia Zarina wrote that dance came to Thailand through the Khmer Empire, and when the Thai conquered Angkor, "among the 90,000 prisoners of war were artists and artisans" including dancers, which the Thai "especially loved and cultivated." Thai author and former Director General of the Fine Arts Department Dhanit Yupho says the Khmers may have introduced masked dance-drama to Siam as the Thai word Khon, first appearing in Ayutthaya after Khmer artists were brought to the court, comes from the Khmer word Khol. Scholar Paul Cravath wrote that, whereas dancers were marched off to Ayutthaya when the Siamese captured Angkor, all the evidence points to some of the dancers managing to follow the Khmer king to the new capital - view also held by contemporary Cambodian dance teachers. Portuguese historian Diogo do Couto described a lake with several boats "gathering the rice with merry energy, dances and musical contests” at Angkor during his visit in the late 1580s. Having witnessed Siamese court dance at Ayutthaya, Monsieur de la Loubere gave a 1688 account of "the rabam" (from the Khmer word robam for dance) and noted it was performed at funerals. This implies Siam still retained the ritualistic nature of Khmer robam at least during that period, though later losing its "ritual function" - something always maintained in Khmer dance - in favor of the Siamese/Thai dramatic dance form.

During the mid 19th century, King Ang Duong spent much of his childhood in Bangkok, where the Siamese King later held the three eldest of Duong's sons captive, and ruled Cambodia as a vassal of Siam. According to one account, the court of Bangkok provided dancers to Ang Duong's court due to declining numbers of ballet dancers in Cambodia, though this claim has been contested. Ballet teacher and scholar Prumsodun Ok argues the perception of low numbers can be explained by the practice of dancers leaving the court upon the death of a sovereign. Ok further contends, along with historian Trudy Jacobsen, the claims were an effort at "political erasure" of his niece and predecessor, the unpopular Vietnamese-installed Queen Ang Mey). Mey also wouldn't relinquish her crown for Duong who aimed to cast her as an "ineffectual ruler” and ”lesson” about women's power. Duong pursued the "old teachers" to rid the dances of "unsuitable" elements inserted over time which could include any Vietnamese influence. The king, who studied the conservative Dhammayuttika branch of Buddhism in Bangkok, implemented modest costumes of heavy fabrics for form-fitting tops and a restrictive sampot, as opposed to the loose sampot worn by dancers until his changes, which would mirror his interest in the Chbab Srey ("woman's law") poem he likely authored. In the 1850s, French missionary Charles-Émile Bouillevaux relayed that in Ang Duong's palace was a "great deal of music and theatre; I have caught a glimpse sometimes, much in spite of myself, of his concubines who simulate battles between the ancient heroes of India.” Lakhon Khol plays were codified during Ang Duong's reign based on the Reamker depicted in 12th century bas-reliefs in Angkor Wat.

During the reigns of Ang Duong, Norodom, and Sisowath, dances were based on the Reamker, Khmer melodramas, and folk legends. In a process of cultural exchange, some dances from this period were based on Khmer adaptations of popular Siamese works such as Inao, Phra Aphai Mani, and Krai Thong.

"EN BALLET A LA COUR DU CAMBODGE" ("In ballet at the court of Cambodia.") Phnom Penh rong ram for dance performances. By Louis Delaporte, July 1866.

Cambodia became a French protectorate in 1863. Since then, dancers began performing for foreign dignitaries and for the public on the monarch's birthday. Dance was thereby, promoted as national identity.

Neang Sok, the "tall" Royal ballerina who performed male roles, especially neay rong. Photographed by Émile Gsell, circa 1866.

King Norodom was crowned in June 1864, four years after the death of Duong (his father). Three dance troupes, which included male dancers, existed within the palace under the control of Norodom's wives and other royal women during his rule. The king's first wife Preah Moneang Bopha Kessa controlled one of the troupes as well as theater. There were many troupes and dancers in Cambodia during this time. A rumored favorite of Norodom, "tall" Khmer dancer Neang Sok played mostly male roles, particularly neay rong. She married Frenchman Paul Le Faucheur who worked on the Royal Palace. Two teen girls named Neang Nhiv and Neang Nhoeng displayed a talent for jumping and climbing in trees and were then sent to join the Battambang governor’s dance troupe. For performances, a dance hall, or rong ram (រោងរាំ), was erected at the palace. Travelers including French explorer Louis Delaporte were invited by King Norodom to witness a royal dance performance in the new rong ram. Delaporte would sketch an illustration of the performance, which is the first "pictorialization of Khmer dancers" ever documented by a European. Norodom is known to have "always remained accessible to outside influence" and welcomed dancers and musicians from Burma (Myanmar), China, Laos, Malaysia, Siam (Thailand), and Vietnam. The king brought musicians back from an 1872 Philippines trip and the same year returned with "Malayan coachmen" from Singapore, one of whose daughter became a lead royal dancer and well respected dance teacher. French diplomat Auguste Pavie reported traveling dance troupes as well as those owned by governors, on top of palace dancers, in an 1880s Cambodia visit. His photographs of a dance rehearsal in Battambang are the oldest known photos of Khmer ballet. Pavie also noted that costumes recalled "those in the ancient bas-reliefs," though traveling troupes varied in quality while remaining within the tradition. A report published in 1888 by one Edgar Boulangier stated that the Battambang dance troupe of one M. Catalone was "considered superior to that of Norodom" and the "choreographic traditions" Cambodia's "most faithfully preserved."

Dancers of King Sisowath's, along with de Monteiroper's private troupe and possibly former dancers turned-inmates at Marseille Colonial Exposition Paris, 1906.

Sisowath took the throne in 1904, the very year his half-brother, Norodom, died. Two-thirds of the palace dancers departed; some formed private dance groups whereas others were imprisoned for accrued debts. Some 100 dancers (the youngest) remained. Palace Minister Samdach Chaufea Thiounn (also called Okhna Veang), husband of Khmer ballerina Neang Sok and Paul Le Faucheur's daughter, Mlis, guided all "performance activity." French representative George Bois sought Khmer dancers for the 1906 Marseille Colonial Exposition and found Portuguese-Khmer Colonel de Monteiro and his dance troupe of 20, but still sought more. Prison director Rath said he must accompany Bois and the dancers in order for "some additional dancers" among the prisoners. Sisowath finally agreed his dancers will join de Monteiro's troupe and the prisoners on the condition he accompanies them. The king brought an entire entourage, on top of the dancers themselves, under the control of the king's daughter, Princess Soumphady. 5,000 tickets were sold for only 1,200 seats, resulting in a riot. A calm returned once Princess Soumphady “resentfully” agreed to an additional midnight performance. Auguste Rodin created at least 150 watercolour paintings of the dancers. He followed the Khmer ballet dancers back to Phnom Penh. Rodin interpreted the performance as ballet dance. The king paid the dancers and covered costumes and accessories with under 10% of his budget, despite the pay reduction imposed by the French. Young dancers were encouraged to attend school and dancers could exit court at will. The ritual basis of Khmer court dance was largely unchanged, though French influence and money constraints diminished the court role of the individual dancer. Thai lyrics in a considerable amount of the repertoire were translated into Khmer, an endeavor that included re-translating Thai lyrics that were originally Khmer, back to their original language (Khmer). 1920s dance performances at Angkor Wat were carried out by a privately-owned provincial troupe. Dancer and Khmer Rouge survivor Chea Samy was brought to the palace in 1925 at age six; dance presented one of few opportunities for non-royalty to enter the palace.

Dancers at Angkor, likely a private troupe, circa 1920 by Léon Busy.

Two dancers remained in the palace after Sisowath's 1927 death. His son, Monivong, was crowned as Khmer ballet joined the power tug-of-war between the French and the Khmer monarchy. That year, Frenchman George Groslier claimed Khmer ballet was near extinction, which he'd first claimed 15 years prior despite the successful performance in France and the 1913 construction of the Chan Chaya Pavilion dance hall. Thus the French produced an agreement that “transferred control of the dancers from the Royal Palace administration to the École des Beaux-Arts [French control].” Financial constraints compelled Monivong to accept.

Groslier captured the poses and “ports de bras” of five dancers in photographs: Ith (star of 1922 performance in France), Anong Nari, Suon, Kieuvan (age 19), and Nou Nam (former royal dancer, age 50). While the ballet was in French hands, their jeweler named Phen stole 55 pounds (or 25kg) of the ballet's precious silver and gold jewelry and bolted to Siam (Thailand). French control of the ballet wouldn't even last a year before the troupe was returned to palace authority. Former royal dancer Princess Say Sangvann (អ្នកម្នាង សយ សង្វាន) departed the court over a domestic dispute and started her own. This pleased French authorities who obliged anything needed for her troupe, which would perform at the Paris Colonial Exhibition in 1931. French authorities funded the troupe, deemed them the true Khmer dancers, and permitted them alone to perform for tourists and esteemed visitors at Angkor Wat. Monivong's troupe performed infrequently. Royal dancer Luk Khun Meak conceived a child with Monivong during his father's reign and was thus designated khun preah moneang ('lady in charge of the ladies') upon his ascent. Khun Meak's cousin Loth Sareoun was also among the dancers, The khun preah moneang brought several villagers into the court, including Chea Samy's future husband and his brother, Solath Sar - later known as Pol Pot.

Saèm, première danseuse en tenue de fête [Saem in Her Festival Attire] by Jean Despujols, 1937.

British painter Sir Gerald Kelly photographed and painted ballerinas from the king’s and the princess’s troupe in 1937. Neak Thul, Saona, Chea Samy, and the princess's foster daughter Saem (សាអែម) were among the models, with 897 photos total. French-American painter Jean Despujols in 1937 also depicted Saem posing on Angkor Wat’s Rainbow Bridge. The painting, portraying Saem's hand in Khmer kbach “flower” gesture, is the cover artwork for the book Earth in Flower. Zarina described the troupe's presentation as directed by "impeccable French taste." She studied with the princess in 1937 and observed the troupe sewing costumes and flexing each other's fingers, wrists, elbows, and toe joints in preparation. Zarina also attended a two-hour royal ballet performance on 27 December for the king's birthday.

An investigation had denied Princess Sangvann a passport in 1932, claiming her trip would be to Siam to "collect a dancer named Yeun, sent to Siam to learn to dance in the Siamese manner.” It further stated Sangvann was in debt to an “Indian banker" and her dance troupe, viewed as acquiescent to the colonial French, dissolving. The French ultimately believed the failure of the princess's private dance group was "deserved." The last record of her troupe performing was in 1941. Luk Khun Meak created a meticulous program to realize her idea of authentic Khmer dance, having grown dissatisfied with palace dance as well as French influence. She taught an additional 20 or so girls, on top of the palace dancers, and four years later presented the dancers to Princess Kossamak Nearyrath - Monivong's daughter.

When King Monivong died in 1941, Khun Meak rose to dance “senior instructor." Few palace women remained as under Monivong they were from lower-class backgrounds, unlike their predecessors. It was after Monivong's death that Princess Kossamak - the mother of newly-crowned Norodom Sihanouk - consolidated the dancers Khun Meak had given her with the palace dancers. Including the dancers provided by Khun Meak, there were 48 Royal ballet dancers in 1941. Sihanouk handled the cost for the palace dancers’ maintenance, and it was his goal to debut the troupe to the public. The French thoroughly objected and fought this until the end, having moved control of Palace matters to the "Protectorate" government and aimed to dissolve the royal ballet. Still, for a half year, Princess Kossamak oversaw the palace dancers' rigorous rehearsal with the assistance of seven old dance teachers - specifically krus - and took the leap of faith that her dancers were superior to Princess Sangvann’s. She managed to secure funds from donors to cover the cost of 14 costumes. Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại was invited to Sihanouk’s 21st birthday on November 22, 1942, and was treated to a Palace dance presentation tailored specifically to “Emperor and Empress of Annam.” Princess Kossamak’s gamble paid off as the performance was a success. That 1942 performance established Kossamak as the tradition’s principal reformer in the independence era.

Independence and cultural diplomacy (1940s–1970)

Princess (later Queen) Sisowath Kossamak became a patron of the Royal Ballet of Cambodia. Under her guidance, several reforms were made to the royal ballet, including choreography. This first meant implementing a two-hour performance set consisting of opening and closing dances and a drama in between. Dance dramas and a lot of "pure" dances were dramatically shortened while other pure dances were expanded into group theatrical pieces. An example is Tep Monorom, a dance that went from featuring a princess and prince character to a synchronized closing performance of 12 dancers. This reflects the stylistic norms of ancient dances offered to the spirits. Evidence shows Kossamak introduced new dances to the repertoire and likely removed others that were present during her father's (Monivong) reign. To achieve significant contrast of monkey characters from human characters, she welcomed male Khol dancers into the royal ballet to depict acrobatic monkeys - a striking departure from the depiction technique for human roles.

After Cambodia's independence in 1953, Queen Sisowath Kossamak began revamping the ballet incorporating the tastes and inclinations of international audiences. By the 1960s, she utilized European staging techniques for performing the dance dramas.

For New Year's, the Queen held royal dance performances at Angkor Wat. Flood lights and torches were placed on the temple for a backdrop, and intricately crafted pieces of (fake) foliage and other Angkorean motifs were placed amid the ballerinas.

The Queen commissioned short dance pieces tailored especially for diplomatic events. They were mostly extracted from long, traditional performances such as, Robam Tep Monorom (Welcome Dance), Robam Apsara, Robam Chhun Por (Blessing Dance), Robam Moni Mekhala and Robam Ream Eyso. During these performances, western guests were provided a booklet to explain the dances in their respective languages. In 1959, Sisowath Kossamak visited the United States to introduce Khmer national culture through exhibition performances of the Khmer-American Friendship Ballet, originally titled The Ballet of Khmero-American Friendship. The following year, the cultural ambassadorship programme continued in China under similar name, The Ballet of Khmer-Chinese Friendship. When Sihanouk visited France in 1964, the dance was performed for the first time at Palais Garnier after colonial independence. Over the years, the ballet performances were important part of the itinerary for international head of states visiting the country. The list included Indian prime minister Nehru, Indonesian president Sukarno, Yugoslavian president Tito, French president de Gaulle. Other public figures included Princess Margaret, and Jacqueline Kennedy.

Princess Buppha Devi performs in the Cambodian Royal Palace.

Norodom Buppha Devi, the granddaughter of the queen and daughter of King Norodom Sihanouk, was already elevated as the premier dancer of the ballet in 1958. When she turned eighteen in 1961, she was appointed the lead dancer for the roles of a princess. Thereby, she performed at several diplomatic events.

A mural depiction of Indra and his dancers, Silver Pagoda, Cambodian Royal Palace.

Under the Sangkum period, prince (later, King) Norodom Sihanouk directed Cambodia's cultural and artistic transformation. As a diplomatic design, he promoted symbols of the country's national culture that had entered the consciousness of people across the world: temples, and the ballet. Sihanouk also featured the dances of the royal ballet in his films.

Valuables linked to royalty in the eyes of the public were in Lon Nol's hands after his successful coup. Whereas the Royal Palace was reportedly known as the "ex-royal palace," the government gladly accepted the ballet as a "continuity." Although retaining its symbolism, now it was known as "The Classical Khmer Ballet." This period of international visibility ended with the Khmer Rouge seizure of Phnom Penh on April 17, 1975.

Khmer Rouge and near-extinction (1975–1979)

The dance tradition was severely disrupted during the Khmer Rouge regime, in which many dancers were put to death during the genocide. During the period of 1975 to 1979, 90 percent of all Cambodian classical artists died from starvation, execution, torture, or exhaustion. In a forced labor camp, Luk Kunh Meak starved to death. The Khmer Rouge mutilated her daughter's breasts after catching her trying to buy food with gold; she bled out. Neay rong dancer and dance teacher Sam Sakhan was executed at Tuol Sleng. The few artists who survived or escaped carried the remaining choreographic knowledge with them.

Revival and reconstruction (1979–present)

Khmer classical dance training was revived in the refugee camps in eastern Thailand with the few surviving Khmer dancers. Many dances and dance dramas were also recreated at the Royal University of Fine Arts in Cambodia. After the Vietnamese ousted the Khmer Rouge in 1979, dancers gathered to collectively reconstruct the repertoire. Those who survived came out of hiding, and in time managed to find one another. They formed "colonies" to keep their traditions alive, under the leadership of Voan Savay, a former ‘’prima ballerina’’.

The Royal Ballet is maintained today by the National Dance Company of Cambodia in Phnom Penh. The tradition was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008 (see UNESCO inscription). In 2023, director Xavier de Lauzanne released ‘’The Perfect Motion’’ (French: ‘’La beauté du geste’’; Khmer: ‘’Tep Hattha’’), an 86-minute documentary that follows two storylines: the ‘’Metamorphosis’’ show created by Princess Norodom Buppha Devi, and the history of the Royal Ballet from 1906.

Performance practices

Princess Buppha Devi performs a propitiation dance (c. 1965) as a neang rong. Note the dancers of lower ranks (philieng) in obeisance.

The following performance conventions were documented before the Khmer Rouge period and reconstructed by surviving teachers after 1979.

During the era of the French Protectorate of Cambodia and before, it was customary for guests of the royal palace to receive a performance of the royal ballet. In propitiation ceremonies (បួងសួង, buong suong), it was performed at Wat Phnom and the Silver Pagoda and Throne Hall of the Royal Palace. For entertainment, performances were often staged inside the pavilions of royal palaces.

Character types

Four main types of roles exist in Khmer classical dance: neay rong (male), neang (female), yeak (rakshasa), and the sva (monkeys). These four basic roles contain sub-classes to indicate character rank; a neay rong ek, for example, would be a leading male role and a neang kamnan (or philieng) would be a maiden servant. The sub-classes of the four main roles all perform in the same dance style of the class they belong to. However, the yeakheney, or female Yeak, is performed with a feminized dancing style of the male counterpart. Other female character types, such as the apsara, kinnari, or mermaid, follow the same dancing style as the neang role but with subtle differences in gestures; the main difference being costume. The ngoh character type, although male, is presented with a different dancing style than the neay rong.

Most roles are performed by female dancers, but the role of monkeys was transferred to men under the guidance of Queen Sisowath Kossamak. Other roles performed by men include hermits and animals such as horses and mythical lions.

The cast is divided into two forms, neang as the female characters and neay rong as the male characters:

Female character types (neang)
Neang Ek (នាងឯក)	The female lead; deities, queens, or princesses (e.g. Sita, Mekhala)
Neang Pi-Leang (នាងភីលាង)	Female servants
Neang Komnan (នាងកំណាន់)	Mistresses; extramarital lovers
Neang Mae (នាងម៉ែ)	The mother
Neang Kinnorei (នាងកិន្នរី)	The Kinnari; half-bird, half-human mythological creature from Hem Pean
Neang Neak (នាងនាគ)	The Nāga; half-serpent, half-human mythological creature
Neang Yahkhenei (នាងយក្ខិនី)	The Rakshasi; female villain (e.g. Surpanakha)
Neang Sovannmacha (សុវណ្ណមច្ឆា)	Suvannamaccha; mermaid princess; daughter of Ravana, spouse of Hanuman

Male character types (neay rong)
Neay Rong Ek (នាយរងឯក)	The male lead; deities, kings, or princes (e.g. Rama)
Neay Rong Bav Preav (នាយរងបាវប្រៀវ)	Male servants
Neay Rong Sena Ek (នាយរងសេនាឯក)	Battalion commander or general
Neay Rong Pol Sena (នាយរងពលសេនា)	Soldiers and imperial guards
Neay Rong Chao Ngoh (នាយរង)	Comic character with memory problems; serves as farce
Neay Rong Ovpuok (នាយរងឪពុក)	The father
Neay Rong Moni Eisey (នាយរងមោនីឥសី)	The wise sage or hermit; usually the male lead's teacher
Neay Rong Krot (នាយរងគ្រុឌ)	The Garuda; avian mythological creature (e.g. Jatayu)
Neay Rong Yahk (នាយរងយក្ស)	The Rakshasa; male villain (e.g. Ravana)
Neay Rong Sva (នាយរងស្វា)	Human-like ape mythological creatures (e.g. Hanuman)
Neay Rong Animal (នាយរងសត្វ)	Divine animals serving as secondary characters, such as horses or deer (e.g. Puthisen's Talking Pegasus, Mony Keo)

Robam Tep Monorom performed in a Siem Reap restaurant.

In Phnom Penh, the Moonlight Pavilion was built for and is still used occasionally for classical dance performances. Nowadays, venues for performances by the Royal Ballet include the Chenla Theatre and the Chaktomuk Conference Hall, designed by architect Vann Molyvann during the Sangkum Reastr Niyum era. Tourist restaurants in Cambodia, notably in Siem Reap, also serve as venues for classical dance performances by amateur troupes.

Today, some dancers are linked to government and work at the Royal University of Fine Arts and Secondary School of Fine Arts as teachers. Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts (Cambodia)'s Department of Performing Arts also engage dancers to perform on state visits. Many dancers work in the tourism, art, and corporate sectors.

Teacher salute ceremony

Performed before the dance troupe enters the stage, the Teacher Salute Ceremony pays tribute to the teachers who trained the performers and invokes the protective spirits associated with each character type, so the performance may proceed without interruption. This ceremony originates from an ancient forerunner when the royal dance troupe had to offer blessings before they took the stage.

This ritual is typically on Teacher's Day (Thursday).

Stage and props

The traditional stage for classical dance drama performances contains a table with a decorative pillow, sometimes laid on an Oriental rug or carpet. This table of low stature, called a krae (គ្រែ, lit. "bed"), is constant throughout the performance and is used as a prop representing many locations and objects — a palace, the Naga Kingdom, a rock mountain — depending on the drama's context.

In many dance dramas, characters wield weapons such as bows, swords, staves, and clubs. In some dances, dancers hold items such as flower garlands, fans, and gold and silver flowers as a tribute (see bunga mas). Performances of robam makar (the makara dance) entail devas dancing in leisure and using fans to represent the scales of the mythical makara while the goddess Manimekhala leads the mimicry with her crystal ball of magic.

Movement and gestures

Khmer classical dancers use stylized movements and gestures to convey meaning and tell a story. These gestures are often vague and abstract, though some may be easily understood. Dancers do not sing or generally speak, except in some dance dramas where there are brief instances of speech by the dancers.

Sculpted depiction of Khmer kbach (referring to dance hand gestures)

Hand gestures in Khmer classical dance are called kbach (meaning "style"). These hand gestures form a sort of alphabet and represent various things from nature such as fruit, flowers and leaves. They are used in different combinations and transitions with accompanying movement of the legs and feet to convey different thoughts and concepts. The way gestures are presented, the position of the arm, and the position of the hand relative to the arm can affect their meaning. Gestures are performed in different manners depending on the character type.

Music

Pin Peat ensemble

Main article: Pinpeat

Pin Peat musicians photographed by Pierre Dieulefils.

The music used for Khmer classical dance is played by a Pin Peat ensemble. This type of orchestra consists of several types of xylophones, drums, oboes, gongs, and other musical instruments. The Pin Peat repertoire for the Royal Ballet comprises 34 tracks, divided into two broad styles: a smaller ensemble (Mohoari style) and a larger ensemble used at the Royal Theatre. The chorus consists of several singers who sing mainly in the absence of instrumental passages. Lyrics are in poetry form and are sung with grammatical particles EU [əː], Eung [əːŋ], and Ery [əːj] woven into the verse.

Instruments

• Roneat ek : The lead xylophone with bamboo or teak wood keys
• Roneat thung : A xylophone with bamboo or teak wood keys; low
• Roneat dek : A metallophone of brass keys
• Roneat thong : A metallophone (now rarely used)
• Kong thom : A set of 16 gongs arranged in a circle
• Kong toch : Like the gongs above, but smaller
• Chhing : A pair of finger cymbals
• Krap : A pair of wood clappers (now rarely used)
• Sralai : A type of shawm; there are two sizes
• Khloy : A type of flute made from bamboo (now rarely used)
• Skor thom : A pair of drums played with a percussion mallet
• Sampho : A type of drum played with the hands

Vocal music

The singing group (ក្រុមចម្រៀង) of the Royal Ballet is divided into three parts: women who sing for the neang (female) characters, men who sing for the neay rong (male) characters, and a chorus. The singers narrate the actions of the dancers through song and body language.

Khmer classical dance uses particular pieces of music for certain events, such as when a dancer enters or leaves a scene, or performs certain actions, such as flying or walking. These musical pieces are arranged to form a suite. New pieces of music are rarely created.

Below is a select list of music pieces used in the repertoire:

• Sathukar : (សាធុការ) a song of blessing used for propitiation, often used to commence a performance
• Krao nai : (ក្រៅណៃ), also known as santheuk knong (សន្ធឹកក្នុង), overture of the yeak (ogre) characters, a display of power as they go into combat or battle
• Smaeu : (ស្មើ) used for the introduction of a character or a group of dancers in a scene
• Lea : (លា) used to present a character's departure from the scene; leaving the stage
• Cheut chhing : (ជើតឈិង) lit., euphonic chhing; music characterized by the constant percussion of drums and small cup-shaped cymbals; used to present an action such as commencing a journey or flying
• Lo : (លោ) music used in tune with aquatic recreation (e.g. dancers miming the action of rowing a boat)
• Long song mon : (លងស៊ងមន) lit., "royal bathing of the Mon"; a song used to represent a character dressing up their appearance
• Phya deun : (ផ្យាឌើន); also known as ponhea daeur (ពញ្ញាដើរ), a music piece used to present dancers marching (e.g. the beginning of robam tep monorom)
• Klom : (ក្លុម) used to show the grace and beauty of a character wielding his weapon
• Sinuon : (ស៊ីនួន) - lit., "cream color", in reference to complexion, a soft and slow feminine melody
• Salamar : (សលមារ) - a music characterized by the sralai, often used for certain actions such as combat, but not limited to such
• Preah Thong (ព្រះថោង)
• Bao Lut (បោលុត)
• Sarak Burong (សរៈប៊ុរង)
• Balim (បលិម)

Costume and appearance

Khmer youngster during dance practice.

Women and men (and girls and boys) both wear cotton sampot chang kben for rehearsal and training. Girls wear a form-fitted, button-up blouse called aaw nay. For the dance performance, the costuming process is a lot for the dancer to bear, as sewing the garments onto the dancer lasts multiple hours.

Khmer royal ballet costumes are quite intricate, with a lot of brocade and embroidery, and may include authentic gemstones and sequins. Most of the costumes are thought to be representative of what divinities wear.

Royal dancer costumes closely resemble ceremonial costumes. As in, the "dancer-prince" costume is basically the same as that of a king at coronation. Likewise the "dancer-princess" costume is near indistinguishable from that of brides and that worn for a girl's hair-cutting ritual. There are elements of outside origin, such as shoulder wings (indanu) found in Indonesian dance long before use in Lao, Thai or Khmer dance, though the foundational Khmer dance costume and jewelry is gleaned from Angkor and its precursors, as well as pop fashion.

Female costume

Khmer neang (female) lead. Sampot worn in Khmer sampot sarobap ka'at kbal neak (sampot folded like the head of a naga) style.

Princesses and queens are grouped with goddesses in the highest category called neang ek.

Over a lacy slip called ao sbay, the typical female costume consists of a sampot charobab/sarobap (or sampot robab), a sampot with two contrasting silk threads along with rich gold and silver metallic thread. The sampot, worn samloy-style and also called samloy robab, is usually 3½ yards long by 1½ yards wide, and is wrapped around the lower body and both ends pleated into a bundle that’s folded over and secured with a metallic (often gold) belt called khim khat. The bundle’s draped pleats are pulled up and out to fan over the belt. This is called sampot sarobap ka'at kbal neak, or "sampot folded like the head of a naga" (សំពត់សារបាប់ កាតក្បាលនឥ). The sampot robab of the lead dancer is usually white while supporting dancers appear in sampots of green, blue, and red. Kravat khim khat, an apsara dancer's belt, resembles her samrong kar/srang kar

Khmer dance: bangles, bracelet, armlet, earrings, Apsara mokot, & sbai.

A thin, fine, second silk sbai (a shawl-like breast cloth) may be included under the main heavier, elaborately-ornamented sbai, which is often satin. By itself or paired with the smaller garment, the main heavy sbai, which matches the sampot, stretches diagonally from the waist and over the left shoulder, where it flows down the dancer's back. Under the sbai, a form-fitting top is worn; it may have two sleeves, be sleeveless, or have only one sleeve, depending on the character role. This garment's material is often velvet or satin. Instead of a sbai, dancers performing Robam Apsara wear silk bodices under their jewelry, usually skin-tone in color, to emulate bare-breastedness.

Lead and secondary in Robam Apsara.

Around her neck is an embroidered, ornate collar called srang kar or samrong kar. Decorated with brass and featuring leaf and floral motifs, this accessory may leave the back of the neck exposed. Unless she's depicting an apsara, crosswise from her right hip to left shoulder she wears five chains, and also wears a large, stylized neck pendant that's more adorned than the masculine counterpart. She wears an armlet, called snab dei or baing phap, on her right arm, as featured on carved Angkorean women. If depicting an apsara, she wears the armlet on both arms. Koang nhor is a connecting pair of rounded, bunched bracelets (or anklets), She may wear diamond earrings called tumhou. Apsara dancers wear Kra ya, low-dangling earrings modeled after the mles or kra saing flowers. The patrum (or kantrum/katrum) is a copper coil bracelet that's gold in color. Apsara dancers also wear koang rak, a diamond bracelet bearing foliage-like decor. The ankle bangles are called kong tong chhuk. If performing Apsara, a beaded sangvar may adorn her upper torso, crosswise.

Khmer Sovann Maccha.

Ranked second are female governors with their 20 servants (kom nam). Similar to Queen costumes but smaller bracelets, no gems in their armlet, only three chains that are gilt silver, only one anklet, and silky sampot instead of charobab.

The third category are yakkhinis, female ogres, and their costumes match along the same hierarchical rank as the princesses, governors, and attendants. The yakkhini wear no masks.

The kinnari are bird-women, the fourth category. Purple pants and a yellow tail are worn along with gilt brass breast cups, a silky flap (tat) down to the knees, gilt leather armbands, and an adorned leather stomach-cover (phchet).

Sovann Maccha is the lone character in the fifth category. A long-sleeved upper-garment is worn, gold of color, in addition to a golden sampot sarobab. She wears a belt and decorated banner in front, and her jewelry corresponds closely with that of the governors.

Male costume

Male lead, or neay rong.

Certain clothing for male characters, such as sleeves, are more elaborate than that of the female characters and often require being sewed as the dancer puts the clothing on.

Kings and gods are grouped with the title neay rong ek, and along with prince roles (neay rong roang) make up the first, highest ranked male category. A sampot sarobap is worn in the chang kben fashion. An embellished cloth called kravat cankeh is wound around his waist, fastening the sampot.

Beneath a lattice belt of silver with a golden buckle hangs three richly embroidered banners, with the center piece known as a robang muk while the two side pieces are known as a cheay kraeng. Pants called choeng khor are worn.

They wear a jacket and collar, both silk embroidered, called av pak and srang kar (or samrong kar), respectively. On the end of their shoulders are a sort of epaulette that arches upwards like Indra's bow (known as indanu, or entam). These are tied around the armpit. Male characters also wear an X-like strap around the body called a sangvar. An ornament called a sloek po (named after the bo tree leaf) serves as a center point for their sangvar. Five sets of bracelets are worn as well as cuffs that are essentially five faux-bracelets. Fine wire anklets and a set of rings, kravel choeng and kang choeng respectively, are worn on the ankles.

Khmer yaksha Ream Eysor, a jealous storm demon.

The next category called phi lieng ek consists of governors/generals and their attendants. Costumes of generals share a likeness to that of princes and kings, except the sampot (specifically lboeuk) isn't embroidered but plain silk. The attendants' costumes are less elaborate versions of the same. One set of kang choeng (on ankles) is worn, and their patrum (a bracelet) bears 20 beads of silver.

The third group are masked: ogres or giants, the yakkha or yaksha (also yak) who go by rank of soldiers, the chiefs of the soldiers, and officers. First is the King of Giants (or yak ek) called Rab whose costume is that of a king's. The exceptions are how the banners on each leg are somewhat turn-up, and are pointed instead of rectangular. His mask's point is tall, and in his belt are three kroeus, or daggers. The prince of Giants wears essentially the same, though no daggers, and "silver gilt" instead of gold. His mask's point is shorter than Rab's and fashioned in the form of a rooster's tail. Four yakkha officials are costumed like that of human officials, though with masks bearing fangs. Two neay khen yak, or soldier chiefs, wear red silk sampots and jackets, as well as their red attalat saron, or pants, which are longer than the others. They wear nearly zero accessories and no jewelry at all. On their head is a silky red turban bearing golden flowers, and a silky red fabric across their chest called tuon. A yakkha army consisting of 20 soldiers (puok khen yak) wear cotton instead of silk sampots, and no chest cloth.

Khmer masks, mokot ksat, bangles, bracelets, armlet, body chain, & jor trachiek ("ear ornament").

The fourth category are monkeys with the same rank hierarchy as yaks. Monkey generals wear no shoulder wings or spired crowns. Costumes are the same as yaks and humans except with tied silk in the back for a tail. Masks are the same dominant color as the costumes: Hanuman (or Sva Sar) in white; Bali (or Angkot) is green; Nillaphat (known as Sva Khmao) is the black monkey, and Nilla Ek, Chum Pou Pean, or Maha Chumpou is the red monkey.

Birds are the fifth group of males. The central role is the King of Birds called krut or garuda. The tiny shoulder wings and smaller collar differ somewhat from that of princes. Golden lame wings adorn his hips, and the frame of brass supports an upturned tail of silk. On his wrists are winged wrist guards (snap day). Knee pads (snap chung kong) and shin guards (snap choeng) of red brocade silk replace the front and side leg banners. The kennara, "mythical bird-men", wear costumes combining that of krut and princes, which is the same costume as their female counterparts. The sarika, or singing blackbird, wears no jewelry and only accessories with a mask. Dressed entirely in black, his wings, pants, and jacket are heavy satin whereas garters, gloves, and socks are fine silk.

Khmer Hanuman.

Placed in his own category, Preah Sang, or ngo in disguise, wears essentially the prince costume. Except for a red, silky scarf (pha hum) with his embroidered black outfit, and that his belt is the same as the officers.' His scowling black mask has no crown or spire attached, but he appears in a mokot as Preah Sang at the end of the dance.

Another category in of itself is the eysei who wears a sacred, unique mask and hermit's flowing robe. Eysei wears a helmet with no mask when appearing in a comic context.

Finally, clowns wear golden-floral silk pants and jackets with a pha lay tath, a kind of sampot of cotton. This role comes with freedom to accessorize as desired.

Headdress and masks

Women wearing tall, single-spire Khmer mokot ksatrey. Angkor Wat, 12th century.

Khmer male mokot ksat.

Dancer wearing a Khmer kbang.

Khmer royal yak and monkey masks with attached mokot.

There are several types of crowns that denote characters' ranks. Divinities and royal characters of the highest ranks wear a tall, multi-tiered single-spire crown called a mokot. The mokot originally referred only to the king's crown and in turn that of lead male dancer and now it's commonly used referring to any pointed crown in Khmer dance, and the main versions of mokot are reminiscent of Buddhist stupas. Specifically, the mokot ksat is worn by male characters and a mokot ksatrey, paired with a face-framing diadem, is worn by female characters. This feminine form mokot ksatrey corresponds to the single-spire crowns depicted in the bas-reliefs at Angkor except taller. Whereas the mokot ksatrey spire's base rests atop the female character's head, the base propping up the mokot ksat spire has a perimeter exceeding the head of the male character. The feminine mokot is shorter, and the masculine mokot is more elaborate.

The crown of second-rank dancers, the panchuret (Groslier romanizes this as panntiereth), is reserved generals both female and male as well as their helpers. It is a light-weight crown encircling the dancer's head and with a faux knot in back.

Next is a low-docked "cone" crown topped with up-pointed wings/flames. Called mokot kantuy hong, it's worn by Sovann Machha as well as attendants or soldiers.

Commonly worn by young female dancers depicting lowest-rank characters is the kbang (also kbaing na), which is simply a diadem. Brahmin characters with hair buns contained in an ornament may also wear a kbang.

Khmer chor trajeak or jor trachiek (ear ornament).

The apsara crown is taken directly from the form seen in numerous carvings and sculptures at Angkor. The lead apsara's mokot usually has five spires and two levels whereas the minor apsaras' mokots usually have only three spires and one level.

Some characters' headdressings include ear ornaments called chor trajeak or jor trachiek ជរត្រចៀក ("ear ornament").

Khmer yakkha masks.

Monkeys and yaks of royalty wear masks with attached mokots. None of the feminine characters wear masks. Garuda - King of the Birds, some animals, the eysei, and Preah Sang when disguised as the ngo, all wear masks. Yakkha masks, like that of the monkeys, exceed the size of human heads, and have wings on each side like the mokot. The masks for monkey characters bear extended jaws, and yakkha masks are heavy and have large mouths with fangs. Rab's mask, with the attached mokot with nine carved faces, is the largest and most expensive, owing to his top position in the hierarchy.

Floral adornments

Lead apsara with floral adornments.

Dancers are traditionally adorned with fragrant flowers that are prepared and placed in water earlier in the day and then removed an attached before a performance. Although sometimes fresh flowers are substituted with faux flowers.

Neang (female) with floral adornments.

The neang (female) role wears a rose, or another big flower, on her right side above her ear. A floral tassel of Plumeria obtusa or Plumeria rubra (a white variety) flower, called champei in Khmer, that hangs from jasmine strings is attached to the left side of her mokot. For the neay rong (male) role, it's reversed: a lone rose/flower is placed on the left above his ear while the floral tassel is attached to the right side of the male's mokot.

An apsara also wears the flower tassel attached to the left side of her mokot and then a champei on the right side of her head, above her ear. She will sometimes wear multiple champeis as a cascade on the back of her hair.

Yakkha may wear a flower above their right ear whereas monkeys wear none.

Sometimes, dancers will wear jasmine garlands fit for the wrists.

Repertoire

According to The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre, the Royal Ballet's repertoire contained approximately 40 dances and 60 dance dramas. Since the restoration of the Royal Ballet in 1979, some of the old repertoire was recreated and several new dances were also created, most notably robam monosanhchettana by the late Chea Samy. As of recent years, new dance dramas have been created by the Royal Ballet, such as Apsara Mera. Sophiline Cheam Shapiro has also introduced new repertory to Khmer classical dance, although they are not part of the traditional royal repertoire and mainly have been performed in Western venues. Her works include dramas such as Samritechak, an adaptation of Shakespeare's Othello and Pamina Devi, an adaptation of Mozart's The Magic Flute.

Dance dramas

The repertoire of dance dramas (រឿង, roeung) contains a wide range of stories, unlike the lakhon khol, which is limited only to the Ramayana. Many of the dance dramas have analogs in the lakhon nai dance genre of Thailand but do not share the same choreography or exact storyline. During the time of Queen Kossamak, several dance dramas were re-choreographed and shortened, including Roeung Preah Thong-Neang Neak; this drama, among others, was recreated in 2003.

The plots of many dance dramas often concern a male character who rescues a damsel in distress or a destined love presented with obstacles. The traditional repertoire portrays mythology or traditional tales and may include religious concepts such as karma.

A dance of tribute used in a dance drama titled Preah Ket Mealea, circa 1965

Sita and Ravana in a scene from the Reamker dance drama.

Select repertory of dance dramas

• Reamker (Ramakerti, រាមកេរ្តិ៍): Ramayana
• Preah Sothon-Neang Monorea (ព្រះសូធន-នាងមនោហ៍រា): Sudhana-Jataka, formerly referred to as Kailas (កៃលាស), recreated in 2003
• Krai Thong (ក្រៃថោង)
• Inao (ឥណាវ): Panji
• Kakey (កាកី): Kakati-Jataka
• Preah Anoruth-Neang Usa (ព្រះអនុរុទ្ធ-នាងឧសា): Aniruddha
• Sopheak Leak (សុភលក្ខណ៍): Chitralekha
• Preah Samot (ព្រះសមុទ្រ)
• Sovannahong (សុវណ្ណហង្ស)
• Preah Sang (ព្រះស័ង្ខ)

Dances

In contrast to the dance dramas are shorter dances known as robam. They can serve several purposes, such as honoring dignitaries, ritualistic functions (securing the kingdom's fortune and prosperity), and blessing. Spanning several minutes, not all these dances have storylines, although many robam are excerpts from dance dramas such as robam mekhala-reamso and robam sovan macchha (the latter being from the Reamker).

The apsara dance of today was created under the guidance of Queen Kossamak Nearireath. Its costume is based on the bas-relief of apsaras on temple ruins but much of it, including its music and gesture, is not unique to other classical Khmer dances and does not necessarily date to the Angkor period.

Select repertory of dances

• Robam Apsara (របាំអប្សរា)
• Robam Tep Monorom (របាំទេពមនោរម្យ)
• Robam Chun Por (របាំជូនពរ)
• Robam Makar (របាំមករ)
• Robam Sovann Maccha (របាំសុវណ្ណមច្ឆា)
• Robam Moni Mekhala or Mekhala-Reamesor (របាំមណីមេខលា)

UNESCO inscription

The Royal Ballet of Cambodia was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2003, one of 90 elements recognized under that program. In 2008, following the establishment of the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, it was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity at the third session of the Intergovernmental Committee, under inscription ID 00060.

UNESCO's evaluation cited the tradition's near-extinction under the Khmer Rouge, who eliminated almost all master dancers and musicians, and the subsequent revival of dance troupes after 1979. The inscription identified ongoing difficulties including a lack of funding and suitable performance spaces, competition from modern media, and the risk of the tradition becoming reduced to a tourist attraction. Safeguarding measures committed to by Cambodia include performer training, documentation of choreographic knowledge, and institutional support for the National Dance Company of Cambodia.

See also

• Theatre of Cambodia
• Dance in Cambodia
• Khmer shadow theatre

References

Bibliography

• Banham, Martin (1995). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43437-9.
• Becker, Elizabeth (1998). When the War Was Over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-00-3.
• Bois, George (1913). Les Danseuses cambodgiennes en France (in French). Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient.
• Brandon, James R. (1967). Theatre in Southeast Asia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
• Cravath, Paul (1986). "The Ritual Origins of the Classical Dance Drama of Cambodia". Asian Theatre Journal. 3 (2): 179–203. doi:10.2307/1124400. ISSN 0742-5457. JSTOR 1124400.
• Cravath, Paul (1987). Earth in Flower: An Historical and Descriptive Study of the Classical Dance Drama of Cambodia (PhD thesis). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
• Cravath, Paul (2014). Earth in Flower: The Divine Mystery of the Cambodian Dance Drama. Denver: DatASIA. ISBN 978-1-934431-29-0.
• Falser, Michael S. (2013). "From a colonial reinvention to postcolonial heritage and a global commodity: performing and re-enacting Angkor Wat and the Royal Khmer Ballet". International Journal of Heritage Studies. 19 (6): 702–723. doi:10.1080/13527258.2013.794746. ISSN 1352-7258.
• Fletcher, Peter (2001). World Musics in Context: A Comprehensive Survey of the World's Major Musical Cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517507-3.
• Jacobsen, Trudy (2008). Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History. Copenhagen: NIAS Press. ISBN 978-87-7694-001-0.
• Sasagawa, Hideo (2005). "Post/colonial Discourses on the Cambodian Court Dance" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 42 (4): 418–441. ISSN 0563-8682. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 11, 2017.

Further reading

Non-fiction

• Cravath, Paul (2008). Earth in Flower - The Divine Mystery of the Cambodian Dance Drama, DatAsia Press
• Groslier, George et al. (2011). Cambodian Dancers - Ancient and Modern, DatAsia Press
• Heywood, Denise (2009). Cambodian Dance Celebration of the Gods, River Books
• Loviny, Christophe (2003). The Apsaras of Angkor, Sipar: Jazz Editions

Fiction

• Meyer, Charles (2009). Saramani: Cambodian Dance, DatAsia Press
• Lee, Jeanne M. (1994). Silent Lotus, Farrar, Straus and Giroux
• Lord, Michael (2006). Little Sap and Monsieur Rodin, Lee & Low Books

Selected discography

• Musical Sources – Royal Music Of Cambodia (1971) by Jacques Brunet; contains a condensed recording of the Buong Suong dance drama featuring the goddess Manimekhala
• Homrong: Classical Music From Cambodia (2004) by Chum Ngek; contains music pieces and suites used by the royal ballet

External links

• Nginn-Karet Foundation Teaches Sacred Dance at Banteay Srey
• The Language of Khmer Classical Dance | The Cambodia Daily
• The Near Extinction of Cambodian Classical Dance | UCLA Center for Southeast Asian Studies
• The Khmer Dance Project
• NY Times | Auguste Rodin and the Royal Ballet of Cambodia
• Khmer Arts | Founded by Sophiline Cheam Shapiro
• Earth in Flower | Photo gallery of 186 Cambodian dance photos arranged by chronology and topic
• Cambodian Dancers | Historical info and 169 original etchings from George Groslier's 1913 book Danseuses Cambodgiennes