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Inland taipan

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The inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), also commonly known as the western taipan, small-scaled snake, or fierce snake,[6] is a species of extremely venomous snake in the family Elapidae. It is endemic to semiarid regions of central‑eastern Australia.[7] Aboriginal Australians living in areas where Karnic languages are spoken refer to this species as dandarabilla.[8][9]

Inland taipan
Oxyuranus microlepidotus at Australia Zoo
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Oxyuranus
Species:
O. microlepidotus
Binomial name
Oxyuranus microlepidotus
(F. McCoy, 1879)
General range of inland taipan (in red). The current, documented range of the species is more limited.[2][3][4]
Synonyms
  • Diemenia microlepidota F. McCoy, 1879
  • Diemenia ferox Macleay, 1882
  • Pseudechis microlepidotus / Pseudechis ferox Boulenger, 1896
  • Parademansia microlepidota Kinghorn, 1955
  • Oxyuranus scutellatus microlepidotus Worrell, 1963
  • Oxyuranus microlepidotus Covacevich et al., 1981[5]

The species was formally described by Frederick McCoy in 1879 and William John Macleay in 1882, but for almost 90 years it remained poorly known to science: no additional specimens were collected and virtually nothing was added to knowledge of its biology until the species was rediscovered in 1972.[8][10]

Based on the median lethal dose (LD50) of its venom in laboratory mice, the inland taipan is widely regarded as the most venomous snake in the world; its venom is substantially more toxic, drop for drop, than that of any tested sea snake.[11] It is also considered to possess the most toxic venom of any reptile when tested on human heart cell cultures.[12][13][14] The inland taipan is a specialised predator of mammals, and its venom is particularly adapted to killing warm-blooded prey.[15] A single bite has been estimated to contain sufficient venom to kill more than 100 adult humans.[16]

Despite this extreme potency, the inland taipan is usually shy and reclusive, with a generally placid disposition,[17] and it rarely comes into contact with people because it inhabits remote areas. By contrast, the coastal taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) is often considered the more dangerous species in practice, largely because of its behaviour when it encounters humans and its proximity to populated coastal regions.[18][19] The word "fierce" in one of the inland taipan's common names refers to the strength of its venom rather than its temperament.[20]

Taxonomy

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Among the Aboriginal people from the area now known as Goyder Lagoon in north‑eastern South Australia, the inland taipan was traditionally known as dandarabilla.[8][9]

The inland taipan was first described scientifically in 1879, when two specimens were collected at the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in north‑western Victoria. Frederick McCoy described these as Diemenia microlepidota, the "small‑scaled brown snake".[8][10] In 1882 a third specimen was collected near Bourke, New South Wales, and William John Macleay described it as Diemenia ferox, believing it to be a different species.[21][5][7] No further material was collected until the 1970s.

In 1896 George Albert Boulenger transferred both taxa to the genus Pseudechis (black snakes), treating them as Pseudechis microlepidotus and P. ferox.[5] In 1956, working solely from the published descriptions and notes, James Roy Kinghorn regarded ferox as a synonym of microlepidotus and proposed the new genus Parademansia for the species.[21]

In 1963 Eric Worrell considered Parademansia microlepidotus conspecific with Oxyuranus scutellatus (then commonly known simply as the "taipan").[5] However, in September 1972 an unclassified snake head collected by a grazier on a Channel Country station west of Windorah in south‑western Queensland was sent to the Queensland Museum. Herpetologists Jeanette Covacevich and Charles Tanner travelled to the site, located thirteen live specimens, and thereby rediscovered the long‑lost "western taipan" Parademansia microlepidotus.[10]

In 1976 Covacevich and Wombey argued that Parademansia microlepidotus was sufficiently distinct to warrant generic recognition, a view shared by Harold Cogger.[5] Subsequently, Covacevich, McDowell, Tanner and Mengden (1981) compared anatomical characters, chromosomes and behaviour of the two then‑recognised species Oxyuranus scutellatus and Parademansia microlepidota, and concluded that both belonged in a single genus. The older name Oxyuranus (erected in 1923) therefore had priority and was adopted for the combined genus.[22][23]

The current binomial name of the inland taipan has therefore been Oxyuranus microlepidotus since the early 1980s.[22][23] The generic name Oxyuranus derives from the Greek oxys ("sharp" or "needle‑like") and ouranos ("arch", specifically the arch of the palate), referring to the needle‑like anterior process on the palatal arch.[24] The specific epithet microlepidotus is from Latin and means "small‑scaled", referring to the small body scales, and is the origin of the common name "small‑scaled snake".[25]

Once Covacevich et al. (1981) had shown that the fierce snake (formerly Parademansia microlepidota) belonged to the genus Oxyuranus, the name "taipan" (derived from the Aboriginal term dhayban) was retained for O. scutellatus, which became known as the coastal taipan (or "eastern taipan"), while O. microlepidotus came to be widely referred to as the "inland taipan" (also "western taipan").[10]

Distribution and habitat

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The inland taipan occurs on cracking‑clay plains in semi‑arid regions near the border of Queensland and South Australia.[7][26]

In Queensland the species has been recorded from the Channel Country bioregion,[27] including Diamantina National Park, Durrie Station, Morney Plains Station[28] and Astrebla Downs National Park.[29] In South Australia it has been observed in the Marree–Innamincka NRM district,[30][31] including Goyder Lagoon,[32] the Tirari Desert, Sturt Stony Desert, Coongie Lakes, Innamincka Regional Reserve and near Oodnadatta.[33] An isolated population is also known from near Coober Pedy, South Australia.[2][3][34]

Two historical records exist from further south‑east, at the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in north‑western Victoria (1879) and near Bourke, New South Wales (1882), but the species has not been recorded from either state since the late 19th century.[2][7]

Conservation status

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Like all native snakes in Australia, the inland taipan is protected by law.[35] The species was assessed for the IUCN Red List for the first time in July 2017, and in 2018 it was listed as Least Concern. The assessment notes that the species is widespread within its range and is not thought to be in overall decline, although the potential impacts of threats require further investigation and may be locally significant.[1]

National and state‑level conservation listings differ because they reflect status within individual jurisdictions:[36]

South Australia: listed as "Least Concern" within the Outback region.[33] Queensland: formerly listed as Rare, then as Near Threatened (May 2010 – December 2014), and currently (since December 2014) as "Least Concern".[37][38] New South Wales: listed as presumed Extinct on the basis that it has not been recorded in suitable habitat despite targeted surveys conducted over an appropriate timeframe for the species’ life cycle.[20][39] Victoria: listed as Regionally Extinct, meaning that exhaustive surveys in all suitable habitats within Victoria have failed to locate the species, even though it still occurs elsewhere within its global range.[40] The Australian Museum likewise lists the inland taipan as "presumed extinct" in Victoria.[7]

In captivity

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Inland taipans are held in a number of zoological collections in Australia and overseas. In Australia they are maintained, and in some cases bred, at institutions including Adelaide Zoo and Taronga Zoo in Sydney. The species is also on public display at Australia Zoo,[41] the Australian Reptile Park,[42] Billabong Sanctuary,[35] Cairns Tropical Zoo,[43] Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary[44] and Shoalhaven Zoo.[45]

Outside Australia, inland taipans are kept in several North American zoos, including Reptile Gardens in South Dakota,[46] Kentucky Reptile Zoo[47] and Animal World & Snake Farm Zoo in Texas.[48][49][50]

In Europe the species is held at the Stockholm Skansen Zoo and Gothenburg Universeum in Sweden,[51][52] at Moscow Zoo in Russia,[53] and at the London Zoo in the United Kingdom.[54] Various smaller facilities and private collections in continental Europe also maintain the species.[55][56]

In Asia inland taipans are held at Singapore Zoo, where they have been the subject of detailed veterinary case reports.[57]

Private ownership law

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In the Australian state of New South Wales, private ownership of an inland taipan is legal only for keepers who hold the highest class of venomous reptile licence, reflecting the very high risk associated with the species.[58]

Description

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Brown‑coloured (winter)
Olive‑coloured (summer)

The inland taipan is typically dark tan in overall colour, varying from a rich, dark brown to a brownish light green depending on season. The back, flanks and tail may show various shades of brown and grey. Many dorsal scales have broad blackish margins which, because the scales are arranged in diagonal rows, align to form broken chevron‑like markings that slope backwards and downwards. The lowermost lateral scales frequently have a yellowish anterior edge. The dorsal scales are smooth and lack keels.

The rounded snout, head and neck are usually noticeably darker than the body – glossy black in winter and dark brown in summer. This darker pigmentation is thought to assist thermoregulation by allowing the snake to absorb heat while exposing only a small portion of the body at the entrance of a burrow. The eyes are of moderate size with dark brown to blackish irises and without a distinct pale ring around the pupil.

The species has 23 rows of dorsal scales at mid‑body, 55–70 divided subcaudal scales, and a single anal scale. The average total length is about 1.8 m (5.9 ft), although larger individuals can attain 2.5 m (8.2 ft).[59] The fangs measure approximately 3.5–6.2 mm, somewhat shorter than those of the coastal taipan.[35]

Seasonal adaptation

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Inland taipans exhibit seasonal colour change, a form of physiological adaptation that assists thermoregulation. Individuals tend to become darker in winter and paler in summer. Darker pigmentation in cooler months increases absorption of solar radiation and thus facilitates warming, whereas lighter tones in summer may reduce heat load.[7]

Breeding

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Inland taipans are oviparous, producing clutches of approximately 10–24 eggs. Eggs are usually laid in abandoned mammal burrows, deep rock crevices or similar sheltered sites. Incubation lasts about two months, though the duration is influenced by temperature and humidity. Reproductive output appears to depend in part on food availability; in years when prey is scarce, females may not breed or may lay smaller clutches.[7]

In captivity inland taipans generally live for around 10–15 years, although longer lifespans have been recorded. An individual at Australia Zoo reportedly lived for more than 20 years.[35]

Feeding

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In the wild the inland taipan is a dietary specialist that feeds almost exclusively on small to medium‑sized mammals,[60][61] particularly rodents such as the long-haired rat (Rattus villosissimus), plains rat (Pseudomys australis), the introduced house mouse (Mus musculus), and various dasyurid marsupials. In captivity the species will also take day‑old chicks.[7]

Unlike many other highly venomous snakes, which often strike once and then retreat while the prey succumbs, the inland taipan typically employs a rapid, close‑quarters attack. It may deliver up to eight envenoming bites in a single attack,[7][20] frequently snapping its jaws several times to inflict multiple puncture wounds.[62][7] During this attack the snake commonly maintains physical contact with the prey, using its body to restrain the animal while repeatedly biting. This strategy injects large quantities of extremely toxic venom deeply into the tissues, causing almost immediate incapacitation and leaving the prey little opportunity to struggle or inflict injury on the snake.[63]

Natural threats

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The inland taipan has few natural predators as an adult, but juveniles are vulnerable. The mulga snake (Pseudechis australis) is resistant to the venom of many Australian snakes and has been documented preying on young inland taipans.[64] The large monitor lizard perentie (Varanus giganteus) shares much of the inland taipan's habitat and, once large enough, readily preys on venomous snakes, including taipans.[65]

Interaction with humans

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Many experienced reptile keepers consider the inland taipan to be comparatively placid to handle, at least in controlled conditions,[7] although its potential to inflict a rapidly fatal bite means that extreme caution is always required.

In the wild, inland taipans are seldom encountered by the general public because of their remote distribution and their tendency to remain underground for much of the day. If a person approaches quietly without causing strong vibrations or noise, the snake may not perceive them as a threat and may remain motionless or attempt to retreat.[66][67][68] Nevertheless, a safe distance must always be maintained because any bite is a medical emergency.

When threatened the inland taipan will usually attempt escape, but if it is cornered, provoked,[69] mishandled[70] or prevented from fleeing,[71] it will adopt a characteristic threat posture in which the anterior body is raised in a tight, low S‑shaped curve with the head oriented towards the source of danger. If the warning is ignored it may strike with great speed and precision, and it envenoms in the vast majority of bites.[7][71][72][73]

Clinical toxicologist, venom researcher and herpetologist Scott A. Weinstein and colleagues have noted that only a small number of inland taipan bites have been documented in the medical literature. In an analysis published in Toxicon they reported 11 well‑documented cases of envenoming, only two of which were inflicted by wild snakes. They emphasised that, when indicated, early administration of adequate antivenom, combined with rapid pressure‑immobilisation first aid and efficient retrieval of victims from remote locations (preferably by well‑equipped aircraft), is central to achieving favourable outcomes.[74]

Snakebite victims

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Most confirmed inland taipan bites have involved herpetologists, professional snake handlers, venom extractors or zoo keepers. Since the introduction of specific taipan antivenom, no deaths have been conclusively attributed to inland taipan bites, although recovery can be prolonged and complications may be severe.[6][35][75]

A notable early case of survival without antivenom was recorded in 1967. On 15 September a tour guide was bitten while attempting to capture a snake for a tour group in the Channel Country. He was transported to Broken Hill Hospital and subsequently to Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Adelaide. Because he reported a severe allergy to horse serum and believed he had been bitten by a brown snake, antivenom was not administered. He was hospitalised for four weeks with a clinical picture likened to severe myasthenia gravis. The snake itself was initially identified by Eric Worrell as a coastal taipan,[76] but following the species’ rediscovery it was recognised as an inland taipan.[10]

In 1984 Australian toxicologist Peter Mirtschin was bitten by a three‑week‑old inland taipan and became the first recorded patient to receive taipan antivenom for this species.[77]

In September 2012 a teenage boy in Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the species’ natural range, was bitten on the finger by an inland taipan being kept illegally in captivity. The victim applied a compression bandage promptly and was treated with polyvalent antivenom at the local hospital, surviving without major sequelae.[78][79][80]

In December 2013 reptile handler Scott Grant was bitten while demonstrating an inland taipan at a public event in Portland, Victoria. He applied a bandage and sought urgent medical care. He experienced convulsions and was airlifted in a serious condition to Royal Melbourne Hospital, where he was stabilised and ultimately recovered. Only a small amount of venom appears to have been injected, and some of his early symptoms were attributed to an allergic reaction, likely related to his history of multiple previous snake bites.[81][82][83][84]

Weinstein et al. (2017) described a case in which a field herpetologist was bitten while attempting to photograph an approximately 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) inland taipan in remote outback South Australia. The victim developed drowsiness, blurred vision progressing to ptosis, followed by dysphagia and dysarthria. He received one vial of polyvalent antivenom followed by two vials of monovalent taipan antivenom, required intubation and three days of intensive care, and experienced a unilateral ophthalmoplegia that persisted for about one week before resolving.[74]

Wildlife presenter Rob Bredl has reported that his father, Joe Bredl, was bitten by an inland taipan in a remote area of South Australia and barely survived, and that a colleague, John Robinson, suffered significant muscle and cardiac damage after a bite sustained while cleaning a captive inland taipan's enclosure on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, although both survived, in Robinson’s case reportedly without antivenom.[85]

Venom

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The average venom yield per bite of an adult inland taipan has been estimated at about 44 mg, with a recorded maximum of 110 mg. For comparison, typical yields for the Indian cobra (Naja naja) are around 169 mg (maximum 610 mg), and for the North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) about 410 mg (maximum 848 mg).[86]

The median lethal dose (LD50) of inland taipan venom in mice, administered subcutaneously – the route most relevant to typical snake bites – is approximately 0.025 mg/kg,[6][86] or as low as 0.01 mg/kg when dissolved in bovine serum albumin.[6][87] This is markedly lower (i.e. more toxic) than values reported for many other dangerously venomous snakes, including the beaked sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa; 0.164 mg/kg), Indian cobra (0.565 mg/kg) and eastern diamondback rattlesnake (11.4 mg/kg).[86] Although the inland taipan’s total venom yield is smaller than that of the coastal taipan, its venom is almost four times as toxic on a weight‑for‑weight basis.[88][89] A single bite is estimated to contain enough venom to kill at least 100 adult humans.

Intravenous, intraperitoneal and intramuscular LD50 values for inland taipan venom have not been systematically determined in the published literature.[90]

For many years Belcher's sea snake (Hydrophis belcheri) was popularly but erroneously described as the most venomous snake, largely because toxicity data from different modes of administration were conflated in a widely read book, Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book (1996). Venom researcher Bryan Grieg Fry has pointed out that LD50 values can only be meaningfully compared when determined using the same route of administration; otherwise comparisons are invalid.[91] Belcher's sea snake venom, tested intramuscularly, has reported LD50 values of 0.24 mg/kg[92] and 0.155 mg/kg,[90] less toxic than several other sea snake venoms, including that of the olive sea snake (Aipysurus laevis; 0.09 mg/kg) and especially the black‑banded robust sea snake (Hydrophis melanosoma; 0.082 mg/kg intramuscularly). The latter species has also been tested subcutaneously (0.111 mg/kg), a value comparable to that of the coastal taipan and still more than four times less toxic than inland taipan venom. Based on subcutaneous LD50 values, Dubois' sea snake (Aipysurus duboisii) currently ranks as the most toxic of the sea snakes (0.044 mg/kg), yet its venom remains almost half as lethal as that of the inland taipan.[90]

Experimental work indicates that the venoms of juvenile and adult inland taipans are similar in composition and toxicity; juvenile venom is not significantly weaker than adult venom.[64][93]

The venom of the inland taipan contains a complex mixture of toxins, including:[72]

potent neurotoxins: ** Presynaptic beta‑neurotoxins such as paradoxin (PDX),[87] ** Postsynaptic neurotoxins such as oxylepitoxin-1,[94] alpha-oxytoxin 1 and alpha-scutoxin 1,[95] Hemotoxins with strong procoagulant activity, affecting blood clotting; Myotoxins that damage muscle tissue; possibly nephrotoxins, affecting the kidneys; possibly haemorrhagins, which damage the vascular endothelium;[96] the enzyme hyaluronidase, which facilitates rapid spread of venom through tissues.[7] Paradoxin (PDX) is considered to be among the most potent beta‑neurotoxins yet described; it interferes with the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from nerve endings, leading to neuromuscular blockade.[87]

Ronelle Welton of James Cook University has noted that, despite their medical importance, the venoms of Oxyuranus species remain relatively understudied at the molecular level. As of 2005 the amino‑acid sequences of only seven inland taipan venom proteins had been deposited in the SWISS‑PROT database.[25]

Clinical effects

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Untreated inland taipan bites have a very high mortality rate:[97]

severe envenoming is likely after a significant bite; the rate of systemic envenoming is estimated at more than 80%; the untreated case fatality rate is also thought to exceed 80%.[72] Clinically, envenoming can produce a complex, multi‑system picture in which neurotoxic effects usually dominate but may be accompanied by coagulopathy, rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury.[98] Early local symptoms include pain at the bite site, often followed by nonspecific systemic features such as headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, collapse or convulsions. Major complications then develop, including progressive neurotoxicity, coagulopathy, muscle breakdown and renal impairment, which without treatment can culminate in death.[72][97]

Presynaptic neurotoxins in the venom cause paralysis by disrupting neurotransmitter release at the nerve terminal. Their effects are slow in onset, can take days to resolve and are not readily reversed even with antivenom. Postsynaptic neurotoxins, by contrast, act more rapidly by competitively blocking acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, and their effects are generally more amenable to reversal by timely antivenom administration.[99] Clinically, patients often develop a descending flaccid paralysis: early ptosis is followed by facial weakness (dysarthria), bulbar involvement, dyspnoea and ultimately respiratory paralysis and peripheral weakness.[25][97]

Because neurotoxic effects may progress rapidly, severe envenoming can be fatal within about 45 minutes in extreme cases, although survival times are usually longer and depend on multiple factors including venom dose, site of bite and availability of treatment.[100][101] Once advanced general or respiratory paralysis has developed it may be difficult to reverse even with large doses of antivenom; prolonged intubation and mechanical ventilation—sometimes for a week or more—may be required. Early recognition of neurotoxic signs and prompt administration of adequate antivenom are therefore critical.[98]

Coagulopathy is caused by powerful procoagulant toxins that activate prothrombin, consuming major clotting factors including fibrinogen and resulting in defibrination and non‑clottable blood. Patients are thereby at increased risk of significant external bleeding from the bite site and potentially life‑threatening internal haemorrhage, particularly intracranial bleeding. Normalisation of coagulation parameters may take many hours even after circulating venom has been neutralised.[97] Taipan procoagulants are among the most potent known from any snake venom,[99] although some cases of inland taipan envenoming have demonstrated only mild coagulopathy.[25]

No specific nephrotoxins have yet been isolated from inland taipan venom, but acute kidney injury is a recognised complication, often secondary to severe rhabdomyolysis. Myotoxins in the venom cause extensive muscle breakdown (myolysis), releasing myoglobin into the bloodstream; this pigment is excreted in the urine (myoglobinuria), which may appear reddish‑brown, and can severely damage renal tubules.[99][102]

Common proximate causes of death in untreated or inadequately treated bites include:[6]

primary or secondary paralysis (e.g. respiratory failure, sometimes complicated by pneumonia), coagulopathy and haemorrhage (e.g. cerebral haemorrhage), kidney failure and associated complications such as sepsis, anaphylaxis in previously sensitised individuals, cardiac complications, which are usually secondary to other systemic effects.

Antivenom

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Until 1955 the only snake antivenom widely available in Australia was monovalent tiger snake (Notechis) antivenom, which provided partial cross‑protection against bites from several other species. Subsequently additional specific antivenoms were developed, including one for the coastal taipan, followed by a polyvalent antivenom intended for use when the biting species is unknown.

The coastal taipan antivenom, commonly referred to simply as "taipan antivenom",[103] is also effective against inland taipan venom, although some evidence suggests that it may be somewhat less effective in inland taipan cases than in bites from coastal taipans, possibly because of differences in venom composition.[25]

Taipan antivenom used in Australia is produced through a long‑running antivenom programme involving the Australian Reptile Park, whose staff collect venom from captive snakes, and Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in Melbourne, which purifies and manufactures the equine‑derived antivenom for clinical use.[104]

References

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  1. 1 2 Wilson, S.; Dickman, C.; Hobson, R.; Sanderson, C. (2018). "Oxyuranus scutellatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018 e.T42493150A42493160. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T42493150A42493160.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 Animals of Queensland. a new window Western Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus. Queensland Museum. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  3. 1 2 Australian Reptile Online Database (28 March 2007). a new window Inland taipan distribution. arod.com.au. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  4. ↑ a new window Oxyuranus microlepidotus (McCoy, 1879) Western Taipan. Atlas of Living Australia. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Fohlman, J. (1979). "Comparison of two highly toxic Australian snake venoms: The taipan (Oxyuranus s. scutellatus) and the fierce snake (Parademansia microlepidotus)". Toxicon. 17 (2): 170–2. Bibcode:1979Txcn...17..170F. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(79)90296-4. PMID 442105.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 White, Julian (November 1991). a new window Oxyuranus microlepidotus. "Neurotoxic paralysis usually takes 2–4 hours to become clinically detectable. Coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minutes of a bite." International Programme on Chemical Safety. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011). a new window Animal Species: Inland Taipan. Australian Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Queensland Snakes. a new window History & Discovery. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  9. 1 2 Pearn, John; Winkel, Kenneth D. (December 2006). "Toxinology in Australia's colonial era: A chronology and perspective of human envenomation in 19th century Australia". Toxicon. 48 (7): 726–737. Bibcode:2006Txcn...48..726P. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.027. PMID 16996551.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Rediscovery. a new window The rediscovery of the western taipan. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  11. ↑
  12. ↑ a new window Fry, Bryan a new window Archived 2014-04-19 at the Wayback Machine (8 February 2005) a new window Most Venomous a new window Archived 2014-10-17 at the Wayback Machine. "Q: I was wondering what snake's venom is the most potent to humans. A: Drop for drop it is the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), which has a venom more toxic than any other land snake or even the sea snakes." venomdoc.com forums. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
  13. ↑ Seymour, Jamie, a new window World's Worst Venom, (min 44:33) "Among the reptiles tested, the most toxic venom belongs to inland taipan, killing over 60% of heart cells in the first 10 minutes." National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
  14. ↑ Seymour, Jamie, a new window Venom Death Match. "They have the most toxic venom towards humans than any other snake in the world" (min 1:49). National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
  15. ↑ "Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus". www.venomsupplies.com. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2025.
  16. ↑
  17. ↑
  18. ↑ Haji, R. (2000). "Venomous snakes and snake bites" (PDF). Zoocheck Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  19. ↑ "Coastal Taipan". Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  20. 1 2 3 Threatened species 10 October 2012. Fierce Snake – profile. Office of Environment and Heritage (New South Wales). Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  21. 1 2 Kinghorn, J. Roy (1 September 1955). Herpetological notes. No. 5 (page 284). Australian Museum Scientific Publications. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
  22. 1 2 Two Taipans. Two Taipans - Coastal and Western. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  23. 1 2 Covacevich, J., McDowell, S.B., Tanner, C. & Mengdon, G. (Aust. Herp. Symposium, 1980). The relationship of the taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) and the small-scaled snake (O. microlepidotus), Serpentes: Elapidae (page 32). kingsnake.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  24. ↑ Meagher, David (2012). "An etymology of the scientific names of Victorian snakes". The Victorian Naturalist. 129 (1): 54–60.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 Welton, Ronelle Ellen (2005) PhD thesis. Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from Oxyuranus species. (microlepidotus). James Cook University. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  26. ↑ Threatened species (10 October 2012). a new window Fierce Snake – profile. Office of Environment and Heritage (New South Wales). Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  27. ↑ Wildlife of Channel Country (CHC) bioregion. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  28. ↑ Desert Channels region Natural resource management. Desert Channels Queensland's Biodiversity Plan Archived 2013-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. (Channel country, page 24 /special fauna areas) Government of Queensland. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  29. ↑ Wildlife of Astrebla Downs National Park. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  30. ↑ South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Birdsville Strzelecki - Legendary tracks of the Marree Innamincka District. (Archived) (map of district on second page) (Inland taipan page 7) Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  31. ↑ South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Marree – Innamincka Natural Resources Management Group (Archived). Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  32. ↑ Toxicon journal (January 1999) The smooth muscle relaxant effects of venom from the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). (page 1) ResearchGate. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  33. 1 2 (Last updated: 19 July 2013). SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment Project (PDF sheet download, pages 50, 67). Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (South Australia). Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  34. ↑ South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet Archived 2012-03-22 at the Wayback Machine. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 Aussie Animals.Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine. Billabong Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
  36. ↑ Wildlife and ecosystems section. Threatened species criteria. Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 8 November 2013.
  37. ↑ a new window "Table 2: Rare species requiring review that have been transferred to near threatened on 20 May 2010". Queensland Government – Department of Environment and Science. 18 June 2010. Archived from a new window the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2019. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help)
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  39. ↑ a new window "Species listing categories". NSW Environment & Heritage. Retrieved 12 January 2019. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  40. ↑ Conservation status (March 2013). Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria. (Small-scaled Snake, page 14) Department of Sustainability and Environment. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  41. ↑ "Reptiles – Fierce Snake" Archived 2014-02-27 at the Wayback Machine. Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  42. ↑ Our Animals. Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan) Archived 2009-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
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  45. ↑ a new window "Private Shoalhaven Zoo Experience from Sydney". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 20 June 2016. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  46. ↑ a new window "Reptile Gardens' deadliest snake gets television debut". Rapid City Journal. 14 December 2006. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  47. ↑ Help support KRZ. Adopt a Zoo Animal / Australian Inland Taipan. Kentucky Reptile Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  48. ↑ News (10 October 2013).Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake. KABB. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  49. ↑ Maloney, Ron (9 October 2013). Houdini descendant to perform in Seguin. Seguin Gazette. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  50. ↑ Patoski, Joe Nick (14 July 2011). Snake Farm's Charms Still Casting Spells. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
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  52. ↑ a new window "'Missing snake' note rattles Malmö residents". The Local Europe AB. 4 April 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2015. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
  53. ↑ AEZA news (January–March, 2004). Births and Hatchings / Moscow - Russian federation Archived 2014-01-23 at the Wayback Machine. (page 17) European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Magazine. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  54. ↑ a new window "Wicked Reptiles". Zoological Society of London (ZSL). {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  55. ↑ a new window "Inland taipan (Fierce Snake)". Zootierliste. Retrieved 27 July 2015. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  56. ↑ "Animal.asp". zooinstitutes.com. Archived from a new window the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2015. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)Opens a new window
  57. ↑ Luz, Sonja; Dorrestein, Gerry M.; Zwart, Peernel; Hildebrandt, Thomas; Goeritz, Frank; Jan-Willem Van Koten; Tarmizi, Mohamed Reza; Ahmad, Anwar; Oh, Serena; Oh, Soon Hock (2009). a new window "Management, diagnosis and treatment of an inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) with a tumour‑like swelling in the heart region at Singapore Zoological Gardens". doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.27466.67521. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  58. ↑ Wildlife Team (21 June 2024). a new window "Reptile keeper licences". NSW Environment and Heritage. Retrieved 6 October 2024. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  59. ↑ a new window "Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan)". Australian Reptile Park. Archived from a new window the original on 29 September 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2009. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help)
  60. ↑ a new window Two Taipans (archived). Queensland Museum. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  61. ↑ a new window "Western Taipan". Museum of Tropical Queensland. Retrieved 27 May 2017. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  62. ↑ Seymour, Jamie, Venom deathmatch The snake demonstrates striking multiple times (min 1:49) National Geographic Channel, Retrieved 17 April 2014.
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  64. 1 2 Animal Weapons: Episode 1 – Chemical Warfare / Inland Taipan (5m25s). Absolutely Wild Visuals Youtube channel, (AWV stock footage library Archived 1 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine / FOCAL International). Retrieved 18 October 2013.
  65. ↑ Our Animals / Reptiles / Monitors. a new window Perentie – Varanus giganteus a new window Archived 21 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
  66. ↑
  67. ↑ The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World with Steve Irwin, ITV (1998) film clip. a new window "Lick of death". wildfilmhistory.org. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  68. ↑ Steve Backshall talks about his rare encounter with an inland taipan (19 May 2013) film clip. a new window "YouTube Exclusive Steve Backshall on world's deadliest snake – Deadly 60 in Australia". BBC Earth (official YouTube channel). Retrieved 28 October 2013.
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  71. 1 2 Irwin, Steve (30 August 2001). The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World (Television production). Discovery Channel.
  72. 1 2 3 4 Clinical Toxinology Resources. "Oxyuranus microlepidotus -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms". University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  73. ↑ ABC News 24 (27 September 2012). Teen hospitalised after bite from deadly Taipan. (Quoting toxicologist, Dr Geoff Isbister Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  74. 1 2 Weinstein, Scott A.; Everest, Evan; Purdell-Lewis, Jeremy; Harrison, Michael; Tavender, Fiona; Alfred, Sam; Marrack, Liz; Davenport-Klunder, Chris; Wearn, Neralie; White, Julian (1 October 2017). "Neurotoxicity with persistent unilateral ophthalmoplegia from envenoming by a wild inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus, Elapidae) in remote outback South Australia". Toxicon. 137: 15–18. Bibcode:2017Txcn..137...15W. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.07.006. ISSN 0041-0101. PMID 28694006.
  75. ↑ Barrett, Robyn; Little, Mark (October–December 2003). "Five years of snake envenoming in far north Queensland". Emergency Medicine. 15 (5–6): 500–510. doi:10.1046/j.1442-2026.2003.00509.x. PMID 14992068.
  76. ↑ Trinca, John C. (1969). "Report of recovery from taipan bite". Medical Journal of Australia. 1 (10): 514–516. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1969.tb92255.x. PMID 4888073. S2CID 222040045.
  77. ↑ Mirtschin, Peter J.; Crowe, George R.; Thomas, Martyn W. (December 1984). a new window "Envenomation by the inland taipan, Oxyuranus microlepidotus". Medical Journal of Australia. 141 (12–13): 850–851. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1984.tb132968.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 6503793. S2CID 38785243. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  78. ↑ Breakfast News Program (27 September 2012 A teenage boy has survived being bitten by the world's most venomous snake.. Sunrise (Australian TV program) (official Youtube channel). Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  79. ↑ Proudman, Dan (26 September 2012). a new window VIDEO: Detectives investigate after teen bitten by deadly taipan. The Newcastle Herald. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  80. ↑ Petersen, Freya (27 September 2012). a new window Australia: Sydney teenager survives bite by world's deadliest snake, the inland taipan. GlobalPost. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  81. ↑ a new window "Picnicker in serious condition after bite by rare toxic taipan". The Age. 2 December 2013. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  82. ↑ a new window "Taipan handler bitten during display". Archived from a new window the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2014. {{cite web}}: Check |archive-url= value (help); Check |url= value (help)
  83. ↑ Everard Himmelreich (4 December 2013). a new window "Snake handler at heightened risk". The Standard. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  84. ↑ Everard Himmelreich (3 December 2013). a new window "No hard feelings for Taipan bite survivor". The Standard. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  85. ↑ Rob Bredl website. The Taipans. (archived) barefootbushman.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  86. 1 2 3 The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007). "Which snakes are the most venomous?" (Archived). University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  87. 1 2 3 Hodgson WC, Dal Belo CA, Rowan EG (2007). "The neuromuscular activity of paradoxin: a presynaptic neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)". Neuropharmacology. 52 (5): 1229–36. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.01.002. PMID 17313963. S2CID 19532337. The inland taipan is the world's most venomous snake
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  89. ↑ Martin, Stella (January 2004). Newsletter No. 80. Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland). Retrieved 18 October 2013.
  90. 1 2 3 Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne (9 March 2002). "Snakes Venom LD50 – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection ". venomdoc.com. (archived). Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  91. ↑ Inland Taipan Venom vs. Sea Snakes Venom (most notable Belcher's sea snake)
    • Oakley, Cecily (2011). Interview with Associate Professor Bryan Fry Biochemist and molecular biologist Archived 2013-10-22 at the Wayback Machine. "...For my PhD, I worked on the inland taipan, which is the world's most venomous snake...". Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
    • Fry, Brian site admin (10 April 2005) Most Venomous Archived 2014-10-17 at the Wayback Machine, Question: " ...I was talking to another herpatolagist and he said the hook nosed sea snake was the most venomous of all" Fry Answers: "The hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called 'Snakes in question'. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g. subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs intravenous vs intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, its apples and rocks." Venomdoc forums. Retrieved 25 February 2015.
    • kingsnake.com September Guest Chatter (16 September 2006).Q&A with Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne Archived 2012-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. "Q: In retrospect to the LD50 charts, what do you personally feel is the hottest snake, in regards to potency, defensiveness, means of injection, etc.? A: It is the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). Not, as is popularised, any of the sea snakes." connectedbypets.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
    • Garden of Eden Exotics (2 May 2012) Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry – Interview "...The inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) is far and away the most toxic, much more so than even sea snakes." nyexotics.blogspot.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  92. ↑ Tamiya, N; Puffer, H (1974). "Lethality of sea snake venoms". Toxicon. 12 (1): 85–7. Bibcode:1974Txcn...12...85T. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(74)90104-4. PMID 4818649.
  93. ↑ Tan, NH; Ponnudurai, G; Mirtschin, PJ (1993). "A comparative study of the biological properties of venoms from juvenile and adult inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) snake venoms". Toxicon. 31 (3): 363–7. Bibcode:1993Txcn...31..363T. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(93)90155-C. PMID 8470140.
  94. ↑ Clarke, Carol; Kuruppu, Sanjaya; Reeve, Shane; Smith, A. Ian; Hodgson, Wayne C. (2006). "Oxylepitoxin‑1, a reversible neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)". Peptides. 27 (11): 2655–2660. doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2006.06.003. PMID 16879898. S2CID 44544394.
  95. ↑ Kornhauser, Rachelle; Hart, Andrew J.; Reeve, Shane; Smith, A. Ian; Fry, Bryan G.; Hodgson, Wayne C. (2010). "Variations in the pharmacological profile of post‑synaptic neurotoxins isolated from the venoms of the Papuan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni) and coastal (Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus) taipans". NeuroToxicology. 31 (2): 239–243. Bibcode:2010NeuTx..31..239K. doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2009.12.009. PMID 20036687.
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  97. 1 2 3 4 Geoffrey K Isbister (2006). "Snake bite: a current approach to management". Australian Prescriber. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  98. 1 2 Clinical Toxinology Resources. Snakebite Protocols – Oxyuranus microlepidotus Archived 10 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
  99. 1 2 3 Clinical Toxinology Resources. Australian Taipan Snakes – Venom of Taipan snakes. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  100. ↑ Gardiner, Stephanie (27 September 2012). "Mystery over boy bitten by world's most venomous snake". (Quoting Julie Mendezona, Head keeper of Reptiles and Spiders, Australian Reptile Park) The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  101. ↑ AFP (27 September 2012). "Teenager bitten by inland taipan in Hunter Valley". The Australian. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  102. ↑ Shorter, Damon. Great Australian bites – Three of the worst. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
  103. ↑ Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus Archived 8 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine. venomsupplies.com. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
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Further reading

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  • Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphæ and Proteroglyphæ),... London: Trustees of the British Museum (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I–XXV. (Pseudechis microlepidotus and P. ferox, p. 332).
  • McCoy F (1879). Natural History of Victoria. Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria; or, Figures and Descriptions of the Living Species of All Classes of the Victorian Indigenous Animals. Decade III. London: G. Robertson (J. Ferres, government printer, Melbourne). 50 pp. + Plates 21–30. (Diemenia microlepidota, new species, pp. 12–13 + Plate 23, figures 2–3).
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