The Huna conquest of the Gupta Empire was facilitated by the administrative structure of the empire, particularly its feudal system, which enabled the Huna king to gain the support of local chiefs. Notably, inscriptions found in Eran provide insight into this dynamic. One inscription, dating to Gupta era 165 (484 AD), documents constructions undertaken by Maharaja Matrivshnu and his brother Dhanyavishnu during the reign of Budhagupta. Another inscription, following Matrivshnu's death, details the temple construction by Dhanyavishnu during the rule of Toramana Sahi Jauvla, indicating his allegiance shift to the Huna invader. This transition likely occurred after 484 AD, within a generation of that date.[13]
Additionally, an inscription from Eran, dated Gupta era 191 (510 AD), recounts a battle where King Bhanugupta fought against the Hunas, resulting in the death of his general Goparaja. This engagement possibly aimed to halt Huna incursions into eastern Malwa or expel them from the region. If the former, Toramana's conquest of eastern Malwa could be dated to 510 AD, and if the latter, sometime prior to that year. While the exact date of Huna occupation in the region remains uncertain, it is plausible that Toramana established his rule in Malwa around 510 AD, considering the Huna incursions into India began after 500 AD, following their confinement to Gandhara.[14]
Battle of Eran 510 CE, Sack of Kausambhi 497–500 CE and the Battle of Malwa 510 CE
A decisive battle occurred in Malwa, where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named Bhanugupta was in charge. In the BhanuguptaEran inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at Eran, where it suffered severe casualties.[15] Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas.[15]
According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the Manjusri-mula-kalpa, Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "Shudra" Toramana, who continued his conquest to Magadha, forcing Narasimhagupta Baladitya to make a retreat to Bengal. Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city of Tirtha in the Gauda country (modern Bengal).[17][Note 1] Toramana is said to have crowned a new king in Benares, named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta.[18]
A rare gold coin of Toramana in the style of the Guptas. The obverse legend reads: "The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven".[21][22]
Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in Eran, confirming his rule on the region.[18] The Eran boar inscription of Toramana (in Eran, Malwa, 540km south of New Delhi, state of Madhya Pradesh) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern Malwa was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of Sanskrit in the Brahmi script. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as Mahararajadhidaja (The Great King of Kings),[23]:79 reads:
In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-Toramana, who rules the world with splendor and radiance...
The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.[24]
Kausambi
The monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was probably destroyed by the Alchon Huns under Toramana.[25]
"Hūna Rāja" Toramana seal impression, Kausambi[26]
In the First Hunnic War (496–515),[27] the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with King Toramana pushing deep into Indian territory, reaching Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh in Central India, and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the Gupta Empire.[28]:162 To the south, the Sanjeli inscriptions indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northern Gujarat, and possibly to the port of Bharukaccha.[29] To the east, far into Central India, the city of Kausambi, where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupy Malwa.[27][30][23]:70[31] In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the name Toramana impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the title Hūnarāja ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads.[32] Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi.[32] These territories may have been taken from Gupta Emperor Budhagupta.[23]:79 Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successor Narasimhagupta.[18]
The success of Bhanugupta's campaign against the Hunas remains unspecified in the posthumous inscription of Goparaja. However, the absence of explicit mention of a great victory suggests a different outcome. Subsequent events, as chronicled in the Arya Manjulsri Mula Kalp, reinforce this notion. The narrative portrays Prakāśāditya, identified as the son of Bhanugupta, imprisoned by King Goparaja, possibly on the orders of his own father. Prakāśāditya's release by Hakarakhya (Toramana), who extended his dominion along the banks of the Ganga, signifies the inability of Bhanugupta to thwart Toramana's advance, with the latter eventually occupying much of the Ganga valley.[33]
This narration underscores Toramana's prowess as a conqueror and adept diplomat. His swift conquests effectively reduced the Gupta emperor to a vassal status. Numismatic evidence reveals Toramana's rule over regions including U.P., Rajputana, Punjab, and Kashmir, while textual sources suggest his victorious campaigns extended as far as Gauda. Toramana's strategic approach involved leveraging internal discord within the Gupta empire, thereby facilitating the consolidation of his power in central provinces. Notably, he preserved existing administrative structures and enlisted the support of ancient Gupta official families, exemplified by the case of Dhanyavishnu. Toramana's reign marked a significant period of political upheaval and realignment in ancient India, reshaping the dynamics of power in the region.[34]
Toramana was finally defeated by the local Indian rulers. The local ruler Bhanugupta is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription in Eran, recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary.[35][36][37]Radha Kumud Mukherjee and others consider, in view of the inscription as well as the Manjusri-mula-kalpa, that Bhanugupta was, on the contrary, vanquished by Toramana at the 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point,[18] so that Toramana could be mentioned in the Eran boar inscription, as the ruler of the region.[18]
Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the Aulikara dynasty of Malwa, after nearly 20 years in India. According to the Rīsthal stone-slab inscription, discovered in 1983, King Prakashadharma defeated Toramana in 515 CE.[27][38][39] The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area of Punjab.[27] The Manjusri-mula-kalpa simply states that Toramana died in Benares as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.[18]
Alchon devotee, Butkara I (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.[40]
The four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the Talagan copper scroll inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of Taxila (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India.[40] Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in Hadda.[41]
Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the Butkara Stupa (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.[42]
Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara in northern (modern day) Pakistan.[43] During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.[44] In particular, the writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks.[28]:162 Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art, becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c.630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[45]
Although the Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty,[46] around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer Paramartha, Mihirakula's supposed nemesis Narasimhagupta Baladitya was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher Vasubandhu.[46] He built a sangharama at Nalanda and a 300ft (91m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[46] Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[47]:45[48]:330
The 12th century Kashmiri historian Kalhana also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:
Alchon king with small male figure wearing solar nimbus.
In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass... Yama (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royal Vetala (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged
The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of steppe nomads. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of Surya in India.[50]
The Hindu Vaishnavite goddess Lakshmi, goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of Buddhism, also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially Khingila,[51][52] and Toramana.
Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of Shiva,[53][54] although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.[49]
The Second Hunnic War began when Mihirakula, the son of Toramana, established his position in West Punjab shortly after taking over as leader of his father shortly after 515.
Based on numismatic evidence, it appears that Mihirakula led a group of Alkhan chiefs and was not as powerful as his father. Song Yun met the "King of the Huns" in 520, as we have seen above, on the banks of the Jhelum River. The Northern Wei envoy depicted the king (chiqin) as having a violent and harsh disposition and having perpetrated massacres. The meeting was unpleasant.[57]
Mihirakula tightened his hold in India by going the same path his father had taken during the latter's initial campaign. This is inferred from the one known inscription of Mihirakula, which was discovered "built into the wall in the porch of a temple of the Sun in the fortress of Gwalior," between the Chambal and Betwa rivers. The Sun Temple at Surāj Kund, where the inscription was discovered, is no longer standing; it might have been the heir to the first Sun (Surya) temple established by Mātrceta.[57]
One of the people who was rumoured to live there because of King Mihirakula (prasadena) was Mātrceta. These individuals are identified as the heirs who will benefit from the foundation's success. Consequently, the recently established Sun Temple might have served as a Hun temple, with a garrison inside the fort. A monarch named Mihirakula, which means "Family of Mihira" and is of Mitra, is a direct example of the Alkhan's Iranian ties.[57]
According to Hans T. Bakker It's possible that some of the garrison's members were of Iranian descent, and a temple that combined the sun gods of India's Surya (Bhanu) and Iran's Mithra catered to their religious needs.The Roman legionary stations contain Mithraea.[57]
It is clear that Mihirakula ruled over a wide swath of territory that connected his stronghold of Gwalior Hill in eastern Malwa to his home base of Sialkot in northern Punjab. This corridor shared borders with the Aulikara kingdom of Yashodharman to the southwest and the Maukharis' territory to the northeast, where they had previously taken over portions of the Ganga-Yamuna Plain.[57]
The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king Mihirakula, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the Jhelum by Chinese monk Song Yun. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in Gwalior, Central India as "Lord of the Earth" in the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula.[27] According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital Pataliputra, which was sacked and left in ruins.[58][23]:64
There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town (Sagala) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.
—Xuanzang "The Record of the Western Regions", 7th century CE[59]
The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the Rajatarangini:[60]
Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resembling Kāla (Death) ruled in the land which was overrun by hordes of Mlecchas... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]
Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by Yasodharman, the Aulikara king of Malwa, in the Battle of Sondani in Central India, which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The Sondani inscription in Sondani, near Mandsaur, records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[61][Note 2] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[27] In a part of the Sondani inscription Yasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated king Mihirakula:[19]
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king Mihirakula, whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance
The Gupta Empire emperor Narasimhagupta is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk Xuanzang.[68][49] In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of Magadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[49] Mihirakula is then said to have returned to Kashmir to retake the throne.[69][28]:168 This ended the Second Hunnic War in c. 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.[27]
"The son of that king (Kumaragupta) was the illustrious Dâmôdaragupta, by whom (his) enemies were slain, just like the demons by (the god) Dâmôdara. Breaking up the proudly stepping array of mighty elephants, belonging to the Maukhari, which had thrown aloft in battle the troops of the Hûnas (in order to trample them to death), he became unconscious (and expired in the fight)."
This resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The Sondani inscription in Sondani, near Mandsaur, records the submission by the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[61][Note 2] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[73] In a part of the Sondani inscription Yasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated king Mihirakula:[19]
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king Mihirakula, whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance
In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of Magadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[75] Mihirakula is then said to have returned to Kashmir to retake the throne.[69][28]:168
Victory pillar of Yashodharman at Sondani, Mandsaur.
A confederacy of Indian rulers led by Yashodharman and possibly even supported by the Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta, decisively defeated the Hunnic armies at Battle of Sondani in 528 CE
All of the royal families of these successor states including the AlchonMihirakula had embraced Saivism, which had equally profound effects. Vaisnavism had been rendered obsolete by the fall of the Empire, particularly in its former lands. A theological innovation that specifically aided in this growth was Saivism's ability to provide access to both humdrum rewards and superformance power, in addition to this political component. This was accomplished by human agent lineages personifying god. This provided the Śaiva officials with a unique advantage over their Vaisnava counterparts. This is a unique factor, while Vaisnavism's diminished political standing following the collapse of the Gupta Empire. Saivism particularly gained traction in the regions of former Gupta territories. Although Vaisnavism flourished in the regions of Kashmir and Southern India.[86]
Vajra, who succeeded Baladitya II, did not surpass his predecessor's accomplishments. Despite his construction of an additional monastery at Nalanda and his depiction as a devout Buddhist by Chinese sources, he proved incapable of resisting the formidable Yaśodharman of Malwa. However, the rapid expansion of Malava power was soon curtailed, likely through the influence of emerging feudatory royal houses rather than direct Gupta intervention.[88]
Evidence from the Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh stone inscription suggests that either Isvaravarman or his successor, presumably Isanavarman, successfully repelled a threat originating from 'the city of Dhar'. This conflict, occurring in the second quarter of the sixth century, likely corresponds to the invasion led by Yasodharman. The Maukhari kings played a significant role in opposing the Malava adventurer, receiving support from these feudatories.[88]
Through alliances with such feudatories, Kumāragupta III, the son of Narasimhagupta II, and Vishnugupta Chandraditya, the son and successor of Kumāragupta III, were able to retain control of the imperial throne until the middle of the sixth century AD. These alliances were crucial for the Gupta dynasty's survival amidst political instability and external threats.[88]
The Gupta Empire faced significant challenges during Yashodharman's conquests, as he expanded his victorious campaigns across North India. Despite initial successes, Yasodharman's ability to consolidate his conquests was limited, resulting in a short-lived reign reminiscent of a meteoric rise and fall. The circumstances surrounding his downfall remain unclear, but it is likely that the disintegration of the Gupta Empire, triggered by his victories, contributed to his demise.[89]
The emergence of powers like the Maukharis and Later Guptas during this period suggests a shifting political landscape influenced by Yashodharman's actions. It is possible that the Gupta Emperor orchestrated Yashodharman's defeat by rallying these forces against him. Alternatively, Yashodharman may have succumbed to the chaos he instigated to dismantle the Gupta Empire.[89]
The Gupta Empire, a beacon of stability and prosperity in ancient India, faced a tumultuous period following the demise of Budhagupta, its illustrious ruler. This era was characterized by internal discord, exacerbated by external threats, which precipitated the empire's gradual decline. Succession disputes emerged as a primary catalyst for the empire's instability, leading to fragmentation and partition. The absence of a clear line of succession plunged the Gupta realm into uncertainty, opening the door to rival claimants vying for power.[90]
Among these contenders were Narasimhagupta, Budhagupta's brother, and his successors. Narasimhagupta, known by the honorific title Baladitya, assumed the throne amidst a backdrop of political turmoil and uncertainty. However, his ascendancy was not without challenge, as other claimants, such as Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta, also sought to assert their authority. Vainyagupta's rule, centered in Bengal, and Bhanugupta's reign, commemorated in an inscription at Eran, added further complexity to the Gupta political landscape. The inscription detailing Bhanugupta's exploits suggests Gupta efforts to resist external threats, particularly the incursions of Huna chief Toramana.[91]
Narasimhagupta's reign witnessed both triumph and tragedy. His notable victory over Huna chief Mihirakula demonstrated Gupta military prowess, yet internal discord continued to erode the empire's stability. As rival factions vied for supremacy, the Gupta Empire entered a period of decline marked by territorial loss and political fragmentation. These tumultuous events marked a pivotal chapter in Gupta history, signaling the empire's eventual demise and the end of an era of unparalleled prosperity and cultural flourishing in ancient India.[91]
Route taken by Faxian through India during the rule of Gupta empire
Faxian’s Fu fazang yinyuan zhuan contains references to the atrocities committed by Mihirkula against Buddhists. He reports the alleged beheading of a Buddhist monk named Shizi by Mihirkula, and also states that he destroyed many stupas.[92]
After [him,] there was another bhikṣu called Shizi [lit. ‘Lion,’ probably for Skt. Siṃha]. He lavishly performed Buddhist ceremonies in the kingdom of Jibin. At that time the king of this kingdom was called Miluojue [EMC mji-la-gu[a]t, for Mi[hi]rakula], full of false views and without faith in his heart. He destroyed the stūpas and monasteries in Jibin and killed the [members] of the saṅgha. He then beheaded Shizi with a sharp sword, [but] instead of blood only milk flowed out of his head, which he bestowed on the lawful people, and then he died.[93]
14th-century painting of Xuanzang
Later writers such as Xuanzang give an exaggerated account of the casualties in the conflict. Xuanzang reports that more than 1,600 Buddhistmonasteries were destroyed by Mihirkula, and claims that over “900 million” people were slain, in addition to those who died on the battlefield.[94]
At that time all governmental advisers [of Gandhāra] pleaded with him:
“The great king has [already] powerfully subdued a formidable enemy, the armies do not cross swords anymore,
and you have put to death the principal culprits. Why do you blame the common people? May
you take us inferior ones as the ones who must die instead.” The king said: “You believe in the
dharma of the Buddha, venerate the merits in the yonder world, intend to achieve the fruit of
Buddhahood and extensively expound the former existences [of the Buddha], and now you want
to transfer my evil to the future? You should return to your seats and should not make any
further statements!” Thereupon three hundred million of upper clans were killed, facing theRiver Indus, three hundred million of middle clans were killed by drowning them in the RiverIndus, and three hundred million of lower clans were distributed to his soldiers [as slaves]. Then
he, taking away the wealth of the defeated kingdom, ordered his army to return. [But] before
the beginning of the new year he passed away. At that time it became cloudy, misty, dark and
gloomy, a heavy quake shook the earth, and a fierce storm arose. Thereupon, the ones who had
realized sainthood [arhats] sighed with grief: “[Because of] the unjust killing of innocent people
and the destruction of the dharma of the Buddha he has fallen into the ‘Without Space hell’
[wujianyu 無間獄, Skt. avīci-naraka], and will be roaming therein endlessly.”
The twelfth-century Kashmirihistorian Kalhaṇa, in his Rājataraṅgiṇī, describes a great slaughter carried out by the Huns, claiming that 3 crores (30 million) men, women, and children were killed. Mihirakula is likened to Kāla (Hindu god of death). His approach was said to be heralded by vultures, crows, and other birds flying ahead to feed on those slain by his armies. He is further described as being constantly surrounded by the dead, even in his pleasure houses, and as having neither pity for children, nor compassion for women, nor respect for the aged.[96]
After ruling the land for seventy years this terror of the earth became afflicted in his body with many diseases, and immolated himself in the flames. When he sacrificed his own body there issued from the sky a voice which declared: “This destroyer of three crores [of human beings] has attained salvation, since he has shown no mercy for his own person either.” After killing the inhabitants of Āryadeśa he performed terrible penance, and re established pious observances in this land which, overrun by impure Dāradas, Bhauṭṭas and Mlecchas, had fallen off from the sacred law. When determined to burn himself in the flames he offered an atonement. It was on this account that he bestowed a thousand agrahāras on Brahmans from the Gandhāraland at Vijayeśvara. Then finally he bravely gave up his body to the flames on an iron board which was studded with razors, swords, knives and other [sharp instruments].[97]
It can be seen that the most noticeable shift has been the development of independent, regional states in Northern India following the fall of the Gupta Empire. Not only the rise of the Aulikara kingdom of Daśapura and the Maukhari kingdom of Kanyakubja occurred after disintegration of Gupta Empire, but it is also possible to include the Maitrakas of Valabhi, the Vardhanas of Sthaneśvara, and the Kalachuris of Mahismati. This new constellation was constantly changing since their independence had to be repeatedly reaffirmed; the fall of the Daśapura Kingdom is one example of this.[98]
The power of the Huna in northwest India endured as long as it received support from its formidable ally across the Hindu Kush. However, when the Hephthalites faced intense pressure from the resurgent Sasanian Empire led by Khosrow I in the 530s, and the natural dynamics of the Hunnic Peoples on both sides of the Hindu Kush were disrupted, the IndianHunas, notably the Alkhan led by Mihirakula, lost their capacity to recover from defeats. This underscores the interconnectedness of the history of the Hunas in India with the political landscape to the north of the Hindu Kush.[98]
In contrast to its Iranian counterpart, the Gupta Empire did not experience a revival. Over the fifty years under consideration, the most notable change was the emergence of autonomous regional states in Northern India following the dissolution of the Gupta Empire. Examples include the Aulikara kingdom of Daśapura and the Maukhari kingdom of Kanyakubja, among others. This period witnessed a constant state of flux as the independence of these states had to be reaffirmed repeatedly. The disappearance of the Daśapura Kingdom serves as a poignant example of this instability.[98]
As a consequence of this regional division, major political and commercial centers of the fallen empire experienced decline. Cities such as Kauśambı, Ujjain, Vidiśa, and Mathura lost their prominence, eclipsed by new urban centers like Daśapura, Kanyakubja, Sthaneśvara, Valabhi, and Śripura. This shift in urban centrality reflects the evolving political and economic landscape of Northern India during this period.[98]
↑"Buddha Prakash has proposed to equate the account of the north-western conquest of Raghu with the conquest of Bactrians (Valhikas) described in the Mehrauli pillar inscription. He concludes,
"Hence it follows that Chandragupta II led an expedition in Bactriana in order to remove the menace of the Sakas, Kushāņas and Pārasīkas root and branch."
The Mehrauli pillar inscription simply says that Chandra conquered the Vālhikas. Who were they? We have seen before that the Kushāņas had moved out of Bactria c. A.D. 350 under the ever increasing pressure of the. Chionites and were in the Kabul valley about this time, and the Chionites or the Hūņas had occupied Bactria. Assuming that Kālidāsa's account of Raghu's campaign of conquest has a real historical background and that Chandragupta Vikramaditya adopted a land route for conquering the Pārasīkas, he must have come close to the south-eastern fringe of the Sassanian empire, where according to Kālidāsa he defeated the Parasikas. Kālidāsa's mention of the bearded heads of the Persian warriors suggests their identification with the Sassanians who bore beards. After this victory Chandragupta proceeded further northwards. Passing by Kapiśā where his soldiers enjoyed the famous wine of this region, he pressed towards the river Oxus, on the banks of which were the newly established settlements of the Hūņas. Having subdued them with his might Chandragupta II seems to have brought his victorious march to a halt. He returned home from Bactria proper, crowned with glory and perhaps laden with riches."[81]
↑"After the successful conclusion of the Eran episode, the conquering Hunas ultimately burst out of Eastern Malwa and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that after Bhanugupta's defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire to Bengal. This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town called Tirtha in the Gauda country." in Upendra Thakur (1967). The Hūṇas in India. Vol.58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p.122. OCLC551489665.
12"The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from "Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago". Punjab Monitor. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
↑Goyal, S.R. (1967). History Of The Imperial Guptas. Allahabad: Central Book Depot. pp.335–336. As we have discussed elsewhere, from the combined evidence of the contemporary epigraphs and coins, interpreted in the light of the testimony of the AMMK, it appears that Budhagupta himself 'surrounded on all sides by enemies, was suppressed and killed'.'
↑"The young son of Mahendrasena led his father's army of two hundred thousand men against the enemy whose soldiers numbered three hundred thousand. The prince however, broke the enemy army and won the battle. On his return his father crown him saying "henceforth rule the kingdom," and himself retired to religious life. For twelve years after this, the new king fought these foreign enemies, and ultimately captured and executed the three kings.' It has been suggested that this story gives an account of the fight between Skandagupta and the Hūṇas (IHIJ. 36)." The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age. G. Allen & Unwin. 1951. p.27.
↑Salomon, Richard (1989). "New inscriptional evidence for the history of the Aulikaras of Mandasor". Indo-Iranian Journal. 32 (1): 21. doi:10.1163/000000089790082971. ISSN0019-7246. The fragmentary Mandasor inscription (ins. 9, l.3) also mentions a King (narendra) Ādityavardhana as the reigning sovereign. The identification of this king and his relationship to Gauri is problematic, and it is sometimes thought (Sircar 1953, 130; Goyal 1967, 299) that he was Gauri's overlord. But as shown by Sircar (ibid.; cf. also 131), it is quite likely that "Ādityavardhana was just another name of Gauri."¹ The identity of this Ādityavardhana (? = Gauri) is uncertain, and Sircar (1953, 131) suggests that he may be a feudatory of the Huns installed in place of the Aulikaras, or a hitherto unknown Aulikara king of Daśapura.
↑Taishan, Yu; Jinxiu, Li (2017). Eurasian Studies. Vol.V. p.420. During the years ~ 517–520 CE, it seems Mihirakula was trying to expand his rule to Kashmīra: "Relying on his military power, [the king] had been fighting with Jibin 罽賓 for more territory for three years (Jibin refers to Kāshmīra). The king attacked his enemy [with a force of] seven hundred combat elephants, each carrying ten men armed with swords and clubs. Swords to strike the enemy were attached to the trunk of each elephant. The king stayed at the frontier all day long without returning. His army grew weary and his people overburdened. [As a result] the masses sighed with resentment
↑"This makes it quite clear that the Alchon Huns in India must have had a substantial and rich empire, with the capacity to issue a relatively large volume of gold coins." in TANDON, PANKAJ (7 July 2015). "The Identity of Prakāśāditya". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 25 (4): 668. doi:10.1017/S1356186315000346. hdl:2144/37851. S2CID43869990. Full article
↑"He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in Bamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1980). Kashmir and Central Asia. Light & Life Publishers. p.63.
↑The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script.
↑The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script. Rev: Dotted border around Fire altar flanked by attendants, a design adopted from Sasanian coinage.
Gupta Empire 
,_5th_century_CE.jpg)
,[62] (Ja)yatu Mihirakula ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").[63][64][65][66].jpg)
Śrī Yaśodharmma ("Lord Yashodharman") in Gupta script in Line 4 of the Mandsaur stone inscription of Yashodharman-Vishnuvardhana.[87]
_FAH-HIAN'S_ROUTE_THROUGH_INDIA_AND_TARTARY.jpg)
) is an early variant of the Gupta script.
