Wikipedia

Agricultural soil science

(Redirected from Cultivated soil)

Agricultural soil science is a branch of soil science that deals with the study of edaphic conditions as they relate to the production of food and fiber. In this context, it is also a constituent of the field of agronomy and is thus also described as soil agronomy.

History

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Prior to the development of pedology in the 19th century, agricultural soil science (or edaphology) was the only branch of soil science. The bias of early soil science toward viewing soils only in terms of their agricultural potential continues to define the soil science profession in both academic and popular settings as of 2006.[1][2]

Current status

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Agricultural soil science follows the holistic method.[3] Soil is investigated in relation to and as integral part of terrestrial ecosystems but is also recognized as a manageable natural resource.[4]

Agricultural soil science studies the chemical, physical, biological, and mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to agriculture.[5] Agricultural soil scientists develop methods that will improve the use of soil and increase the production of food and fiber crops.[6] Emphasis continues to grow on the importance of soil sustainability.[7] From the last two decades some new (or renewed) concepts have been developed such as ecosystem services,[8] soil health[9] and soil multifunctionality.[10] Soil degradation such as erosion, compaction, lowered fertility, and contamination continue to be serious concerns.[11] They conduct research in irrigation[12] and drainage,[13] tillage,[14] soil classification,[15] plant nutrition,[16] soil fertility,[17] and other areas, e.g. greenhouse effect mitigation.[18]

Although maximizing agricultural production (both plant and animal) is a valid goal in the frame of human population growth,[19] sometimes it may come at high cost which can be readily evident, e.g. massive crop diseases stemming from monocultures,[20] or the long-term impact of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on groundwater contamination and human health.[21] An agricultural soil scientist may come up with a plan that can maximize production using sustainable methods and solutions, and in order to do that they must look into a number of science fields including agricultural science, physics, chemistry, biology, meteorology and geology.[7]

Kinds of soil and their variables

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The soil texture determines the aeration, drainage, fertility, and porosity of the soil.

Some soil variables of special interest to agricultural soil science are:

  • Soil texture or soil composition: Soils are composed of solid particles of various sizes. In decreasing order, these particles are boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Every agricultural soil can be classified according to the relative percentage of sand, silt and clay it contains.[22]
  • Aeration and porosity: Atmospheric air contains elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and others. These elements are prerequisites for life on Earth. Particularly, all cells (including root cells) require oxygen to function and if conditions become anaerobic they fail to respire and metabolize. Aeration in this context refers to the mechanisms by which air is delivered to the soil. In natural ecosystems soil aeration is chiefly accomplished through the effect of soil organisms on soil structure.[23] Humans commonly aerate the agricultural soil by tilling and plowing, yet such practice may cause degradation.[24] Porosity refers to the air-holding capacity of the soil, which is necessary for soil life and is threatened by the use of heavy machinery.[25] See also characterisation of pore space in soil.
  • Drainage: In soils of bad drainage the water delivered through rain or irrigation may pool and stagnate. As a result, anaerobic conditions prevail and plant roots suffocate.[26] Stagnant water also favors plant-attacking water molds.[27] In soils of excess drainage, on the other hand, plants don't get to absorb adequate water and nutrients are washed from the porous medium to end up in groundwater reserves.[28]
  • Water content: Without soil moisture, more exactly when soil moisture falls below the wilting point, there is no transpiration, no growth and plants wilt. Technically, plant cells lose their pressure (see osmotic pressure and turgor pressure). Plants contribute directly to soil moisture. For instance, they create a leafy cover that minimizes the evaporative effects of solar radiation,[29] a property which is currently used in agroforestry.[30] But even when plants or parts of plants die, the decaying plant matter produces a thick organic cover that protects the soil from evaporation, erosion and compaction, and add a habitat for a variety of beneficial soil organisms.[31] For more on this subject see mulch.
  • Water potential: Water potential describes the tendency of the water to flow from one area of the soil to another. While water delivered to the soil surface normally flows downward due to gravity, at some point it meets increased pressure which causes a reverse upward flow. This effect is known as water suction. Field capacity, the water content retained in the soil at −33 kPa (or −0.33 bar) water potential, when air is in the macropores, and water is in the micropores, is the optimal condition for plant growth[32] and microbial activity.[33] It varies with soil texture, increasing with decreasing size of soil particles (i.e. from sand to clay).[34]
  • Horizonation: Typically found in advanced and mature soils, horizonation refers to the creation of soil layers with differing characteristics. It affects almost all soil variables.[35]
  • Fertility: A fertile soil is one rich in nutrients and organic matter. Modern agricultural methods (intensive farming) have rendered much of the arable land infertile.[36] In such cases, soil can no longer support on its own plants with high nutritional demand and thus needs an external source of nutrients, such as organic amendments[36] or recurrent fertilizer application.[37] However, there are cases where human activity is thought to be responsible for transforming rather infertile soils into fertile ones, as in the use of charcoal in the formation of Amazonian terra preta.[38]
  • Biota and soil biota: Soil organisms interact with the soil and contribute to its quality in innumerable ways. Sometimes the nature of the interaction may be unclear, in particular in the frame of global changes,[39] yet a rule is becoming evident: the amount and diversity of the biota is "proportional" to the quality of the soil.[40] Clades of interest include bacteria, fungi, nematodes, annelids and arthropods.[41]
  • Soil acidity or soil pH and cation-exchange capacity: Root cells act as hydrogen pumps and the surrounding concentration of hydrogen ions affects their ability to absorb nutrients.[42] pH is a measure of this concentration. Each plant species achieves maximum growth in a particular pH range, yet the vast majority of edible plants can grow in soil pH between 6 and 8.[43]

Soil scientists use a soil classification system to describe soil qualities. The International Union of Soil Sciences endorses the World Reference Base as the international standard.[44]

Soil fertility

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Agricultural soil scientists study ways to make soils more productive and to make this production sustainable in the long term.[7] They classify soils and test them to determine whether they contain nutrients vital to plant growth. Such nutritional substances include compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. If a certain soil is deficient in these substances, fertilizers may provide them. Agricultural soil scientists investigate the movement of nutrients through the soil, and the amount of nutrients absorbed by plant roots.[45] Agricultural soil scientists also examine the development of roots and their relation to the soil.[46] Some agricultural soil scientists try to understand the structure and function of soils in relation to soil fertility.[47] They grasp the structure of soil as porous solid.[48] The solid frames of soil (the soil matrix) consist of minerals derived from rocks[49] and organic matter originated from the dead bodies and organs and excreta of various soil organisms.[50] The pore space of the soil is essential for the soil to become productive. Small pores (micropores) serve as water reservoir supplying water to plants and other organisms in the soil during the rain-less period.[51][52] The water in the small pores of soils is not pure water; they call it soil solution. In soil solution, various plant nutrients derived from minerals and organic matters in the soil are there.[53] This is measured through the cation exchange capacity. Large pores (macropores) serve as water drainage pipe to allow the excessive water pass through the soil, during the heavy rains.[54] They also serve as air tank to supply oxygen to plant roots and other living beings in the soil.[55]

Soil preservation

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In addition, agricultural soil scientists develop methods to preserve the agricultural productivity of soil and to decrease the effects on productivity of erosion by wind and water. For example, a technique called contour plowing may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve water through avoidance of surface runoff.[56] Researchers in agricultural soil science also seek ways to use the soil more effectively in addressing associated challenges. Such challenges include the beneficial reuse of human and animal wastes using agricultural crops,[57] agricultural soil management aspects of preventing water pollution[58] and the build-up in agricultural soil of chemical pesticides.[59] Regenerative agriculture practices can be used to address these challenges and rebuild soil health.[60]

Employment of agricultural soil scientists

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Most agricultural soil scientists are consultants, researchers, or teachers. Many work in the developed world as farm advisors, in agricultural experiment stations, federal, state or local government agencies, industrial firms, or universities. Within the USA they may be trained through the USDA's Cooperative Extension Service offices, although other countries may use universities, research institutes or research agencies. Elsewhere, agricultural soil scientists may serve in international organizations such as the Agency for International Development and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.[61]

Quotations

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[The key objective of the soil science discipline is that of] finding ways to meet growing human needs for food and fiber while maintaining environmental stability and conserving resources for future generations

— John W. Doran, 2002 SSSA President, 2002

Many people have the vague notion that soil science is merely a phase of agronomy and deals only with practical soil management for field crops. Whether we like it or not this is the image many have of us

— Charles Edwin Kellogg, 1961

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ Coquet, Yves; Michelin, Joël (15 July 2009). "Introduction". In Coquet, Yves; Michelin, Joël (eds.). Agricultural soil science: sustainable management of agricultural soils. p. xiii. ISBN 9781394361809. Retrieved 20 April 2026.
  2. ↑ Baveye, Philippe; Jacobson, Astrid R.; Allaire, Suzanne E.; Tandarich, John P.; Bryant, Ray B. (July 2006). "Whither goes soil science in the United States and Canada?". Soil Science. 171 (7): 501–18. doi:10.1097/01.ss.0000228032.26905.a9. S2CID 97046751. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  3. ↑ Bridges, E. Michael; Catizzone, Mario (June 1996). "Soil science in a holistic framework: discussion of an improved integrated approach". Geoderma. 71 (3–4): 275–87. doi:10.1016/0016-7061(96)00015-8. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  4. ↑ Klaus, Gregor (2015). "Soil: a precious natural resource" (PDF). www.nfp68.ch. Swiss National Science Foundation. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  5. ↑ Shannon, Danny (2021). Agricultural soil science. ISBN 9781984657626. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  6. ↑ Hartemink, Alfred E. (2007). "Soil science, population growth and food production: some historical developments". In Bationo, André; Waswa, Boaz; Kihara, Job; Kimetu, Joseph (eds.). Advances in integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: challenges and opportunities. pp. 85–97. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5760-1_6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5760-1. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  7. 1 2 3 Lal, Rattan (March 2008). "Soils and sustainable agriculture: a review". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 28 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1051/agro:2007025. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  8. ↑ Bouma, Johan (April 2014). "Soil science contributions towards sustainable development goals and their implementation: linking soil functions with ecosystem services". Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 177 (2): 111–20. doi:10.1002/jpln.201300646. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  9. ↑ Kibblewhite, Mark G.; Ritz, Karl; Swift, M. J. (4 September 2007). "Soil health in agricultural systems". Philosophical Transactions B. 363 (1492): 685–701. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2178. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  10. ↑ Vazquez, Carmen; De Goede, Ron G. M.; Rutgers, Michiel; De Koeijer, Tanja J.; Creamer, Rachel E. (3 July 2020). "Assessing multifunctionality of agricultural soils: reducing the biodiversity trade-off". European Journal of Soil Science. 72 (4): 1624–39. doi:10.1111/ejss.13019.
  11. ↑ Lal, Rattan (29 October 2003). "Soil degradation and global food security: a soil science perspective". In Wiebe, Keith (ed.). Land quality, agricultural productivity, and food security: biophysical processes and economic choices at local, regional, and global levels. Cheltenham, United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 16–35. doi:10.4337/9781781956977.00008. ISBN 978-1840647525. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  12. ↑ Kruashvili, Irakli; Bziava, Konstantine; Inashvili, Irma; Lomishvili, Maia (September 2016). "Determination of optimal irrigation rates of agricultural crops under consideration of soil properties and climatic conditions". Annals of Agrarian Science. 14 (3): 217–21. doi:10.1016/j.aasci.2016.08.006.
  13. ↑ Shedekar, Vinayak S.; Fausey, Norman R.; King, Kevin W.; Brown, Larry C. (2020). "Agricultural drainage: past, present, and future" (PDF). In Delgado, Jorge A.; Gantzer, Clark J.; Sassenrath, Gretchen F. (eds.). Soil and water conservation: a celebration of 75 years. pp. 140–52. ISBN 978-0-9856923-3-9. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  14. ↑ Roger-Estrade, Jean; Anger, Christel; Bertrand, Michel; Richard, Guy (December 2010). "Tillage and soil ecology: partners for sustainable agriculture". Soil and Tillage Research. 111 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1016/j.still.2010.08.010. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  15. ↑ Sofo, Adriano; Zanella, Augusto; Ponge, Jean-François (April 2022). "Soil quality and fertility in sustainable agriculture, with a contribution to the biological classification of agricultural soils". Soil Use and Management. 38 (2): 1085–112. doi:10.1111/sum.12702. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  16. ↑ El-Ramady, Hassan Ragab; Alshaal, Tarek A.; Amer, Megahed Mohamed; Domokos-Szabolcsy, Éva; Elhawat, Nevien; Prokisch, József; Fári, Miklós (2014). "Soil quality and plant nutrition". In Ozier-Lafontaine, Harry; Lesueur-Jannoyer, Magalie (eds.). Agroecology and global change. Sustainable agriculture reviews. Vol. 14. pp. 345–447. ISBN 978-3-319-06016-3. ISSN 2210-4429. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  17. ↑ Smaling, Eric M. A.; Braun, A. R. (1996). "Soil fertility research in sub‐Saharan Africa: new dimensions, new challenges". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 27 (3–4): 365–86. doi:10.1080/00103629609369562. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  18. ↑ Zanella, Augusto; Bolzonella, Cristian; Lowenfels, Jeff; Ponge, Jean-François; Bouché, Marcel; Saha, Debasish; Kukal, Surinder Singh; Fritz, Ines; Savory, Allan; Blouin, Manuel; Sartori, Luigi; Tatti, Dylan; Kellermann, Liv Anna; Trachsel, Peter; Burgos, Stéphane; Minansny, Budiman; Fukuoka, Masanobu (January 2018). "Techno humus systems and global change: conservation agriculture and 4/1000 proposal". Applied Soil Ecology. 122 (Part 2): 271–96. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.10.036. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  19. ↑ Southgate, Douglas (2009). "Population growth, increases in agricultural production and trends in food prices". Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development. 1 (3): 41–7. ISSN 1753-3104. Retrieved 21 April 2026.
  20. ↑ Power, James F.; Follett, Ronald F. (March 1987). "Monoculture". Scientific American. 256 (3): 78–87. ISSN 1946-7087. Retrieved 22 April 2026.
  21. ↑ Nath, Anamika; Bhuyan, Pranamika; Gogoi, Nirmali; Deka, Pratibha (November 2023). "Pesticides and chemical fertilizers: role in soil degradation, groundwater contamination, and human health". In Singh, Rishikesh; Singh, Pardeep; Tripathi, Sachchidanand; Chandra, Krishna Kumar; Bhadouria, Rahul (eds.). Xenobiotics in urban ecosystems: sources, distribution and health impacts. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 131–60. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35775-6_7. ISBN 978-3-031-35775-6. Retrieved 22 April 2026.
  22. ↑ Barman, Utpal; Choudhury, Ridip Dev (June 2020). "Soil texture classification using multi class support vector machine". Information Processing in Agriculture. 7 (2): 318–32. doi:10.1016/j.inpa.2019.08.001. ISSN 2214-3173. Retrieved 22 April 2026.
  23. ↑ Jastrow, Julie D.; Miller, R. Michael (February 1991). "Methods for assessing the effects of biota on soil structure". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 34 (1–4): 279–303. doi:10.1016/0167-8809(91)90115-E. ISSN 1873-2305. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  24. ↑ Lal, Rattan (October 1993). "Tillage effects on soil degradation, soil resilience, soil quality, and sustainability". Soil and Tillage Research. 27 (1–4): 1–8. doi:10.1016/0167-1987(93)90059-X. ISSN 1879-3444. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  25. ↑ Beylich, Anneke; Oberholzer, Hans-Rudolf; Schrader, Stefan; Höper, Heinrich; Wilke, Berndt-Michael (August 2010). "Evaluation of soil compaction effects on soil biota and soil biological processes in soils". Soil and Tillage Research. 109 (2): 133–43. doi:10.1016/j.still.2010.05.010. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  26. ↑ Drew, Malcolm C. (October 1992). "Soil aeration and plant root metabolism". Soil Science. 154 (4): 259–68. doi:10.1097/00010694-199210000-00002. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  27. ↑ Drechsler, Charles (15 March 1929). "The beet water mold and several related root parasites" (PDF). Journal of Agricultural Research. 38 (6): 309–61. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  28. ↑ Kurz, Isabelle; Tunney, Hubert; Coxon, Catherine E. (1 February 2005). "The impact of agricultural management practices on nutrient losses to water: data on the effects of soil drainage characteristics". Water Science and Technology. 51 (3–4): 73–81. doi:10.2166/wst.2005.0577. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  29. ↑ Wallace, J. S. (October 1997). "Evaporation and radiation interception by neighbouring plants". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 123 (543): 1885–905. doi:10.1002/qj.49712354306. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  30. ↑ Lin, Brenda B. (15 April 2010). "The role of agroforestry in reducing water loss through soil evaporation and crop transpiration in coffee agroecosystems". Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 150 (4): 510–8. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.11.010. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  31. ↑ Veen, G. F. (Ciska); Fry, Ellen L.; Ten Hooven, Freddy C.; Kardol, Paul; Morriën, Elly; De Long, Jonathan R. (22 October 2019). "The role of plant litter in driving plant-soil feedbacks". Frontiers in Environmental Science. 7 168. doi:10.3389/fenvs.2019.00168.
  32. ↑ Lo, Tsz Him; Heeren, Derek M.; Mateos, Luciano; Luck, Joe D.; Martin, Derrel M.; Miller, Keith A.; Barker, J. Burdette; Shaver, Tim M. (2017). "Field characterization of field capacity and root zone available water capacity for variable rate irrigation". Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 33 (4): 559–72. doi:10.13031/aea.11963. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  33. ↑ Franzluebbers, Alan J. (3 January 1999). "Microbial activity in response to water-filled pore space of variably eroded southern Piedmont soils". Applied Soil Ecology. 11 (1): 91–101. doi:10.1016/S0929-1393(98)00128-0. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  34. ↑ Richer-de-Forges, Anne C.; Chen, Songchao; Arrouays, Dominique; Bourennane, Hocine; Minasny, Budiman (September 2024). "Hand-feel soil texture classes and particle-size distribution as predictors of soil water content at field capacity: further insights into the sources of uncertainty". Catena. 244 108268. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2024.108268. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  35. ↑ Weindorf, David C.; Zhu, Yuanda; Haggard, Beatrix; Lofton, Josh; Chakraborthy, Somsubhra; Bakr, Noura; Zhang, Wentai; Weindorf, Walker C.; Legoria, Mary (March 2012). "Enhanced pedon horizonation using portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 76 (2): 522–31. doi:10.2136/sssaj2011.0174. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  36. 1 2 Scotti, Riccardo; Bonanomi, Giuliano; Scelza, Rosalia; Zoina, Astolfo; Rao, Maria A. (30 April 2015). "Organic amendments as sustainable tool to recovery fertility in intensive agricultural systems". Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 15 (2): 333–52. doi:10.4067/S0718-95162015005000031. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  37. ↑ Mózner, Zsófia; Tabi, Andrea; Csutora, Mária (May 2012). "Modifying the yield factor based on more efficient use of fertilizer: the environmental impacts of intensive and extensive agricultural practices". Ecological Indicators. 16: 58–66. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.06.034. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  38. ↑ Novotny, Etelvino H.; Hayes, Michael H. B.; Madari, Beáta E.; Bonagamba, Tito J.; de Azevedo, Eduardo R.; de Souza, André A.; Song, Guixue; Nogueira, Christiane M.; Mangrich, Antonio S. (2009). "Lessons from the Terra Preta de Índios of the Amazon region for the utilisation of charcoal for soil amendment". Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society. 20 (6): 1003–10. doi:10.1590/S0103-50532009000600002.
  39. ↑ Young, Iain M.; Blanchart, Éric; Chenu, Claire; Dangerfield, Mark; Fragoso, Carlos; Grimaldi, Michel; Ingram, John; Jocteur Monrozier, Lucile (October 1998). "The interaction of soil biota and soil structure under global change". Global Change Biology. 4 (7): 703–12. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.1998.00194.x. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  40. ↑ Schloter, Michael; Dilly, Oliver; Munch, Jean Charles (September 2003). "Indicators for evaluating soil quality". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 98 (1–3): 255–62. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(03)00085-9. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  41. ↑ Ponge, Jean-François; Pérès, Guénola; Guernion, Muriel; Ruiz-Camacho, Nuria; Cortet, Jérôme; Pernin, Céline; Chaussod, Rémi; Martin-Laurent, Fabrice; Bispo, Antonio; Cluzeau, Daniel (December 2013). "The impact of agricultural practices on soil biota: a regional study". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 67: 271–84. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.08.026. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  42. ↑ Hartemink, Alfred E.; Barrow, N. Jim (4 January 2023). "Soil pH - nutrient relationships: the diagram". Plant and Soil. 486 (1–2): 209–15. doi:10.1007/s11104-022-05861-z. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  43. ↑ Läuchli, André; Grattan, A. Steve (19 May 2022). "Soil pH extremes". In Shabala, Serguei (ed.). Plant stress physiology. Wallingford, United Kingdom: CABI Publishing. pp. 194–209. doi:10.1079/9781845939953.0194. ISBN 978-1-84593-996-0. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  44. ↑ "World Reference Base for Soil Resources" (PDF). www.fao.org (4th ed.). 2024. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  45. ↑ Reichardt, Klaus; Timm, Luís Carlos (17 August 2019). "How plants absorb nutrients from the soil". In Reichardt, Klaus; Timm, Luís Carlos (eds.). Soil, plant and atmosphere: concepts, processes and applications. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. 313–30. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19322-5_16. ISBN 978-3-030-19322-5. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  46. ↑ Gregory, Peter J. (February 2006). "Roots, rhizosphere and soil: the route to a better understanding of soil science?". European Journal of Soil Science. 57 (1): 2–12. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2005.00778.x. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  47. ↑ Lal, Rattan (1991). "Soil structure and sustainability". Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 1 (4): 67–92. doi:10.1300/J064v01n04_06. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  48. ↑ Mateo-Marín, Noemí; Bosch-Serra, Àngela D.; Molina, Maria G.; Poch, Rosa M. (January–February 2022). "Impacts of tillage and nutrient management on soil porosity trends in dryland agriculture". European Journal of Soil Science. 73 (1) e13139. doi:10.1111/ejss.13139.
  49. ↑ Blume, Hans-Peter; Brümmer, Gerhardt W.; Fleige, Heiner; Horn, Rainer; Kandeler, Ellen; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Kretzschmar, Ruben; Stahr, Karl; Wilke, Berndt-Michael (25 November 2015). "Inorganic soil components: minerals and rocks". In Blume, Hans-Peter; Brümmer, Gerhardt W.; Fleige, Heiner; Horn, Rainer; Kandeler, Ellen; Kögel-Knabner, Ingrid; Kretzschmar, Ruben; Stahr, Karl; Wilke, Berndt-Michael (eds.). Scheffer/Schachtschabel soil science. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 7–53. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-30942-7_2. ISBN 978-3-642-30942-7. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  50. ↑ Lehmann, Johannes; Kleber, Markus (23 November 2015). "The contentious nature of soil organic matter". Nature. 528 (7580): 60–8. doi:10.1038/nature16069. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  51. ↑ Landl, Magdalena; Schnepf, Andrea; Uteau, Daniel; Peth, Stephan; Athmann, Miriam; Kautz, Timo; Perkons, Ute; Vereecken, Harry; Vanderborght, Jan (28 March 2019). "Modeling the impact of biopores on root growth and root water uptake". Vadose Zone Journal. 18 (1): 1–20. doi:10.2136/vzj2018.11.0196.
  52. ↑ Vannier, Guy (February 1987). "The porosphere as an ecological medium emphasized in Professor Ghilarov's work on soil animal adaptations". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 3 (1): 39–44. doi:10.1007/BF00260577. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  53. ↑ Smethurst, Philip J. (1 November 2000). "Soil solution and other soil analyses as indicators of nutrient supply: a review". Forest Ecology and Management. 138 (1–3): 397–411. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00426-6. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  54. ↑ Beven, Keith; Germann, Peter (October 1982). "Macropores and water flow in soils". Water Resources Research. 18 (5): 1311–25. doi:10.1029/WR018i005p01311. Retrieved 24 April 2026.
  55. ↑ Rickard, William; Zhang, Xiaoxian; Hossain, Imrul; Mooney, Sacha J.; Crawford, John W.; Neal, Andrew L.; Whalley, W. Richard (July–September 2025). "Change in soil macroporosity with land use and its effect on soil respiration". Soil Use and Management. 41 (3) e70128. doi:10.1111/sum.70128.
  56. ↑ Gebreegziabher, Tewodros; Nyssen, Jan; Govaerts, Bram; Getnet, Fekadu; Behailu, Mintesinot; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (May 2009). "Contour furrows for in situ soil and water conservation, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". Soil and Tillage Research. 103 (2): 257–64. doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.05.021. Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  57. ↑ Girotto, Francesca; Cossu, Raffello (19 January 2017). "Animal waste: opportunities and challenges". In Lichtfouse, Eric (ed.). Sustainable agriculture reviews. Vol. 22. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-48006-0_1. ISBN 978-3-319-48006-0. Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  58. ↑ Wato, Tamirat; Amare, Mekides (30 April 2020). "The agricultural water pollution and its minimization strategies: a review". Journal of Resources Development and Management. 64: 10–22. doi:10.7176/JRDM/64-02.
  59. ↑ Ogidi, Odangowei Inetiminebi; Akpan, Udeme Monday (4 September 2023). "Impacts of chemical use in agricultural practices: perspectives of soil microorganisms and vegetation". In Ogwu, Matthew Chidozie; Izah, Sylvester Chibueze (eds.). One Health implications of agrochemicals and their sustainable alternatives. Sustainable development and biodiversity. Vol. 34. Singapore, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. pp. 765–92. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-3439-3_27. ISBN 978-981-99-3439-3. Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  60. ↑ Khangura, Ravjit; Ferris, David; Wagg, Cameron; Bowyer, Jamie (27 January 2023). "Regenerative agriculture: a literature review on the practices and mechanisms used to improve soil health". Sustainability. 15 (3) 2338. doi:10.3390/su15032338.
  61. ↑ Havlin, John; Balster, Nick; Chapman, Steve; Ferris, Dawn; Thompson, T.; Smith, T. (September 2010). "Trends in soil science education and employment". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 74 (5): 1429–32. doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0143.
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