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Khanate of Kalat

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The Khanate of Kalat, also known as the Brahui Confederacy,[1] was a khanate that originated in the modern-day Kalat region of Pakistan, and was ruled by the Brahui Ahmadzai dynasty.[1] Formed in 1666 due to the threat of Mughal expansion in the region,[2][3] it controlled the wider Balochistan at its greatest extent in the mid-18th century,[4] extending from Kerman in the west to Sindh in the east and from Helmand River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.

Khanate of Kalat
خانات قلات (Persian)
کلاتءِ ھانات (Balochi)
کلات ھانات (Brahui)
1666–1955
Flag of Kalat
Flags
Balochistan in the year 1789, including the Khanate of Kalat and states that are under its suzerainty.
Balochistan in the year 1789, including the Khanate of Kalat and states that are under its suzerainty.
The realm of Balochistan and its cities under Control the State of Kalat in 1855
The realm of Balochistan and its cities under Control the State of Kalat in 1855
StatusKhanate
CapitalKalat
Common languages
Religion
(official)
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
Khan 
• 1656–1666 (first)
Altaz Khan II Qambrani
• 1933–1955 (last)
Ahmad Yar Khan Ahmadzai
Historical eraEarly Modern Period
• Established
1666
13 November 1839
8 December 1876
• declaration of independence
11 August 1947
• Accession
27 March 1948
• Disestablished
1955
Area
1835560,000 km2 (220,000 sq mi)
1940139,850 km2 (54,000 sq mi)
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Mughal Empire
Afsharid Iran
Balochistan States Union
Qajar Iran
Emirate of Afghanistan
Today part ofPakistan
Iran
Afghanistan

The Khanate of Kalat lost considerable area to Qajar Iran and the Emirate of Afghanistan in the early 19th century,[5][4] and the city of Kalat was itself sacked by the British in 1839. Kalat became a self-governing state in a subsidiary alliance with British India after the signature of the Treaty of Kalat by the Khan of Kalat and local sardars in 1875, and the supervision of Kalat became a task of the Baluchistan Agency.[6] Kalat was briefly independent from 12 August 1947 until 27 March 1948, when its ruler Ahmad Yar Khan acceded to Pakistan, making it one of the princely states of Pakistan.

Origins

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The Khanate of Kalat was the first unified polity to emerge in the history of Balochistan.[4] It took birth from the confederacy of nomadic Baloch and Brahui tribes[7][8][9] in 1666 which under Mir Ahmad Khan I declared independence from the Mughal suzerainty[4] and slowly absorbed the Baloch principalities in the region.

History

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Background

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According to local traditions, Kalat was ruled by a Hindu ruler named Sewa when they first conquered it.[10] Historically, the regions surrounding Kalat were part of the Mughal province of Kandahar during 17th century. During the reign of Shah Jahan, Mughal expansion reached its high point, and caused the emergence for the first time a strong, unified "Brahui Confederacy" or the Khanate of Kalat.[4][11]

Establishment

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The first ruler of the khanate was Mir Ahmad Khan I (r. 1666–1695).[12] He was strong enough to capture Quetta, Mastung, and Pishin from the Mughal governor at Kandahar.[4] He spent his life fighting the Afghans and Kalhoras of Sindh, and became an ally of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.[9] During the reign of his successor, Mir Samandar Khan (r. 1697–1714), He expanded the state till Karachi and Placed Mir Noor Muhammad Kalhoro on The Throne under his hand, He Plundered Districts of Zhob which were the country of Pashtuns, a Safavid army under Tahmasb Beg invaded western Balochistan. Safavids were defeated, and Tahmasb was killed. Samandar Khan was rewarded by Mughals with the gift of port of Karachi.[9][13]

Under Mir Abdullah Khan (r. 1716–1731), the state expanded from Upper Sindh and Kandahar to Persia till the port of Bandar Abbas.[9][4] He was later killed while fighting against allied army of Hussain Hotak of Hotak dynasty and Kalhoras in 1734. His son and successor, Mir Mehrab Khan (r. 1734–1749), was given the region of Kacchi, then under Kalhoras, by Nader Shah as blood compensation of his father.[9]

The Khanate reached its peak during the reign of Mir Nasir Khan I (r. 1749–1794), who had unified the Kalat region and conquered cities of Khash, Bampur, Qasr-e Qand and Zahedan in the Iranian Balochistan.[4][14] Since 1748, Kalat was a vassal state of Durrani Empire, and assisted in the campaigns of Ahmad Shah such as in the Durrani campaign to Khorasan. However, in 1758 Mir Nasir Khan I revolted against Ahmad Shah. The Afghans were dispatched under Shah Wali Khan to Kalat, but were defeated. As a result, Ahmad Shah marched himself with an army and defeated the Baloch armies in battle.

Ahmad Shah laid siege to Kalat for over 40 days, and attempted to storm it, however it was unsuccessful. In the ensuing 1758 treaty of Kalat, the exact agreements are disputed. Some sources state that the Khanate of Kalat became a sovereign state.[15][16][17][18] According to some other accounts, Mir Nasir Khan had recognized suzerainty of Ahmad Shah, who guaranteed non-interference in the matters of Kalat.[19][9][20][21][8] Nevertheless, Kalat did not pay any tribute to Durrani Empire thereafter, and provided military contingents in exchange of money only.[9] Following the collapse of the Durranis, any trace of Afghan influence over Kalat ended after the death of Sher Dil Khan, the ruler of the Principality of Qandahar, in 1826.[22][23][24]

Mir Nasir Khan, known to the Baloch by his epithet, "The Great",[3][25][26][27][28][29] undertook 25 military campaigns during his reign, and forced the Talpur dynasty of Sindh to pay tribute.[9] He was the first Khan of Kalat to establish a centralized bureaucracy and issue own currency.[30] He established the office of Grand Vizier to look after the affairs of the state, as well as a standing army. He had also established diplomatic relations with Ottoman Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and Sultanate of Oman.[31] In 1784, he gave refuge to the future Sultan of Oman, Sultan bin Ahmad, and gifted him the port of Gwadar. Gwadar continued to be part of Sultanate of Oman until it was purchased by Pakistan in 1958.[9] Due to his achievements, he is considered a central figure and hero among Brahuis as well as Balochs.[3][30]

Decline

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Palace of Mir Khudadad, Khan of Kalat.

The Khanate of Kalat declined in the early 19th century, losing much of its territory to Qajar Iran and Emirate of Afghanistan.[4] The internal weakness of the state forced Khan of Kalat to sign the Treaty of Kalat (1876) with the British Agent Robert Sandeman in the late 19th century.[4] Parts of the state to the north and northeast were leased or ceded to form the province of British Baluchistan, which later gained the status of a Chief Commissioners province. The Iran–Kalat Border was demarcated in 1896, and the former territories of Kalat Khanate now form part of Iranian province of Sistan and Balochistan.[4]

Accession

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However, with the withdrawal of the British from the Indian subcontinent in 1947, the Indian Independence Act provided that the princely states which had existed alongside but outside British India were released from all their subsidiary alliances and other treaty obligations. The rulers were left to decide whether to accede to one of the newly independent states of India or Pakistan (both formed initially from the British possessions) or to remain independent outside both.[32] As stated by Sardar Patel, "On the lapse of Paramountcy every Indian State became a separate independent entity."[33]

The Instruments of Accession made available for the rulers to sign transferred only limited powers, namely external relations, defence, and communications. The Shahi Jirga of Baluchistan and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality, according to Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, stated their wish to join Pakistan on 29 June 1947;[34] however, according to the political scientist Rafi Sheikh, the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State prior to the vote.[35][page needed]

Kalat remained fully independent from 11 August 1947[36][37] until 27 March 1948, when its ruler, Ahmad Yar Khan (1904–1979), finally acceded to Pakistan, becoming the last of the rulers to do so.[38] Show elections were held during this period and a bicameral parliament was established.[39][40] On the night of 27 March, All India Radio carried a story about Yar Khan approaching India with an unsuccessful request for accession in around February.[41] The next morning, Yar Khan put out a public broadcast rejecting its veracity and declaring an immediate accession to Pakistan — all remaining differences were to be placed before Jinnah, whose decision would be binding.[41]

Dushka H. Saiyid emphasizes that Yar Khan lost all of his bargaining chips with the accession of Kharan, Las Bela, and Makran, leaving Kalat as an island.[41] Salman Rafi Sheikh largely concurs with Saiyid's assessment: multiple other Kalat sardars were preparing to accede to Pakistan and Yar Khan would have hardly any territory left, if he did not accede.[42]

On 3 October 1952, the state of Kalat entered into the Baluchistan States Union with three neighbouring states, Kharan, Las Bela, and Makran, with Yar Khan of Kalat at the head of the Union with the title of Khan-e-Azam. The Khanate came to an end on 14 October 1955, when it was incorporated into West Pakistan.[38]

Language and Literature

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The Khans of Kalat always called the mselves ḵān-e balōč(Khan of Baloch), and the language used by the royal family of Kalat[43] at home was always Balochi.[4] Persian was the administrative language and the written communication language of the Khanate for state business.[4][9] Balochi language was one of the court languages during the rule of the Kalat Khanate. Writers in the era of the Baloch khanate of Kalat have enriched the Balochi language and literature by writing several books of prose.[9] Jām Durrak, the chief poet of the court of Mir Nasir Khan I composed wrote songs and love poems in Balochi, some of it has been collected and published [44][45] The political centralization of the Khanate of Kalat failed to survive through the colonial era and did not lead to the standardization of the Balochi language.[15]

Geography

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Khanate of Kalat (dark green) in Baluchistan Agency (1931)

The Khanate of Kalat covered the area of 139,850 km2 (53,995 sq mi).[46] The territories of the Khanate of Kalat flactuated throughout its history. At the time of death of Mir Nasir Khan I in 1794, it comprised the Iranian Balochistan, parts of Sindh and Afghan Balochistan as far as the Helmand river.[5] Significantly reduced in the late 19th century, the princely state of Kalat occupied the central part of the territory of modern-day Balochistan province in Pakistan. To the north was the Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province), part of British India.

Administration

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Kalat state was divided into following sub-divisions:

  • Jhalawan, an ethnic Brahui subdivision, headed by the chief nawab of the Zehri tribe, known as Chief of Jhalawan.
  • Kacchi, in which various tribes had their own tribal lands under the Khan of Kalat.
  • Sarawan, an ethnic Baloch subdivision, headed by chief nawab of Raisani tribe, called Chief of Sarawan.[47]

Demographics

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Religious groups in Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1901[48] 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51] 1941[52]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 393,667 96.61% 345,906 96.33% 316,985 96.56% 331,234 96.82% 245,208 96.8%
Hinduism 13,780 3.38% 10,102 2.81% 11,205 3.41% 10,806 3.16% 7,971 3.15%
Sikhism 25 0.01% 3,022 0.84% 78 0.02% 42 0.01% 79 0.03%
Christianity 0 0% 51 0.01% 13 0% 15 0% 45 0.02%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 4 0% 0 0% 0 0% 1 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 2 0% 1 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism N/a N/a 1 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 2 0% 0 0%
Total population 407,472 100% 359,086 100% 328,281 100% 342,101 100% 253,305 100%
Note: 1901–1931: Including the divisions of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Kachhi, Dombki-Kaheri Country, Makran, and Kharan.

1941: Including the divisions of Sarawan, Jhalawan, Kachhi, and Makran.

Sarawan Division

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Religious groups in the Sarawan Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51] 1941[52]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 62,660 98.24% 53,304 98.23% 27,722 97.39% 27,592 97.6%
Hinduism 1,003 1.57% 896 1.65% 729 2.56% 592 2.09%
Sikhism 113 0.18% 60 0.11% 10 0.04% 61 0.22%
Christianity 5 0.01% 2 0% 3 0.01% 25 0.09%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total population 63,781 100% 54,262 100% 28,464 100% 28,270 100%

Jhalawan Division

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Religious groups in the Jhalawan Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51] 1941[52]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 83,914 99.43% 79,293 99.48% 88,780 99.78% 52,194 99.85%
Hinduism 472 0.56% 417 0.52% 197 0.22% 78 0.15%
Sikhism 12 0.01% 0 0% 1 0% 0 0%
Christianity 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total population 84,398 100% 79,710 100% 88,978 100% 52,272 100%

Kachhi Division

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Religious groups in the Kachhi Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51] 1941[52]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 84,389 90.98% 68,144 90.67% 98,852 93.36% 79,016 91.76%
Hinduism 7,176 7.74% 7,009 9.33% 7,019 6.63% 7,095 8.24%
Sikhism 1,188 1.28% 0 0% 12 0.01% 1 0%
Christianity 6 0.01% 0 0% 1 0% 0 0%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 2 0% 0 0%
Total population 92,759 100% 75,153 100% 105,886 100% 86,112 100%

Dombki-Kaheri Country Division

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Religious groups in the Dombki-Kaheri Country Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 20,574 87.39% 16,937 86.6% 24,349 90.34%
Sikhism 1,707 7.25% 10 0.05% 16 0.06%
Hinduism 1,262 5.36% 2,611 13.35% 2,588 9.6%
Christianity 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total population 23,543 100% 19,558 100% 26,953 100%
Note: Much of the Dombki-Kaheri Country division was transferred to the administered areas of Sibi District between the 1931 and 1941 census.

Makran Division

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Religious groups in the Makran Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51] 1941[52]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 71,758 99.74% 71,625 99.67% 68,213 99.64% 86,406 99.72%
Hinduism 137 0.19% 216 0.3% 233 0.34% 206 0.24%
Christianity 40 0.06% 11 0.02% 11 0.02% 20 0.02%
Sikhism 2 0% 8 0.01% 3 0% 17 0.02%
Zoroastrianism 4 0.01% 0 0% 0 0% 1 0%
Buddhism 1 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 2 0% 1 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0% 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total population 71,942 100% 71,860 100% 68,462 100% 86,651 100%

Kharan Division

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Religious groups in the Kharan Division of Kalat State (British Baluchistan era)
Religious
group		 1911[49] 1921[50] 1931[51]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Islam 22,611 99.77% 27,682 99.8% 23,318 99.83%
Hinduism 52 0.23% 56 0.2% 40 0.17%
Sikhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Christianity 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Zoroastrianism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Judaism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Jainism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Buddhism 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Tribal N/a N/a N/a N/a 0 0%
Others 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total population 22,663 100% 27,738 100% 23,358 100%
Note: The Kharan division was divided from the Kalat princely state between the 1931 and 1941 censuses to become a separate princely state.

Rulers of Kalat

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The rulers of Kalat at first held the title of Wali but in 1739 also took the title of (Begler Begi Khan), usually shortened to Khan. The last Khan of Kalat (Balochi: خان قلات) had the privilege of being the President of the Council of Rulers for the Baluchistan States Union. They also had the title of beylerbey.

TenureKhan of Kalat[14]
1656–1666Mir Altaz Sani Khan Qambrani II
1666–1695Mir Ahmad I Khan Qambrani III (Changed his Royal family name from Qambrani to Ahmadzai )
1695–1697Mir Mehrab Khan Ahmadzai I
1697–1714Mir Samandar Khan Ahmadzai
1714–1716Mir Ahmad II Khan Ahmadzai
1716–1731Mir Abdullah Khan Ahmadzai
1731–1749Mir Muhabbat Khan Ahmadzai
1749–1794Mir Muhammad Nasir Khan I Ahmadzai
1794–1817Mir Mahmud Khan I Ahmadzai
1817–1839Mir Mehrab Khan Ahmadzai II
1839–1841Mir Shah Nawaz Khan Ahmadzai
1841–1857Mir Nasir Khan II Ahmadzai
1857–1863Mir Khudadad Khan Ahmadzai (1st time)
1863–1864Mir Sherdil Khan Ahmadzai (usurped throne)
1864–1893Mir Khudadad Khan Ahmadzai (2nd time)
1893–1931Mir Mahmud Khan II Ahmadzai
1931–1933Mir Mohammad Azam Jan Khan Ahmadzai
1933–1955Ahmad of Kalat (Mir Ahmad Yar Khan Ahmadzai);
declared independent on 12 August 1947; acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948, while keeping internal self-government
14 October 1955State of Kalat merged into One Unit of West Pakistan[53]
1955–1979Mir Ahmad Yar Khan Ahmadzai (titular)
1979–1998Mir Dawood Jan Ahmadzai (titular)
1998–2006Mir Agha Sulaiman Jan Ahmadzai (titular)
2006–presentPrince Mir Mohammad Khan Ahmadzai (titular)

See also

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Notes

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References

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  1. 1 2 Elfenbein 1989, pp. 433–443.
  2. ↑ Baloch 2011.
  3. 1 2 3 Imperial Gazetteer of India.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Elfenbein 1989.
  5. 1 2 Butt, Saima (9 November 2022). "The Rise of Political Awareness and Institutional Development in Balochistan in British Era". Pakistan Perspective. 27 (1): 96. ISSN 2707-899X. Retrieved 1 June 2026. Balochistan state lost half of its territory in favor of Iran and less than half to Afghanistan.
  6. ↑ "Balochistan Archives – Records of the Agent to the Governor General in Balochistan". Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
  7. ↑ Baloch 2023.
  8. 1 2 Siddiqi 2012, p. 53.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Spooner 1988.
  10. ↑ Khan 2013, p. 68.
  11. ↑ Sedighi 2023, p. 63.
  12. ↑ Malik 2020, p. 12.
  13. ↑ Breseeg 2004, p. 117.
  14. 1 2 Dashti 2012, pp. 190, 280.
  15. 1 2 Spooner 2012, p. 320.
  16. ↑ Breseeg 2004, p. 120.
  17. ↑ Banuazizi & Weiner 1988, p. 273.
  18. ↑ Webb 2016, p. 318.
  19. ↑ Lee 2019, p. 126.
  20. ↑ Durrani & Muhammad 1991.
  21. ↑ Dani 2003, p. 289.
  22. ↑ Balland 1983.
  23. ↑ Gulzad 1994, p. 31.
  24. ↑ Jalalzai 2003, p. 33.
  25. ↑ Khan 2005, p. 111.
  26. ↑ Siddiqi 2012, p. 70.
  27. ↑ Windfuhr 2013, pp. 635–636.
  28. ↑ Hanifi 2019, p. 143.
  29. ↑ Malik 2007, p. 37.
  30. 1 2 Breseeg 2004, p. 118.
  31. ↑ Breseeg 2004, p. 121.
  32. ↑ Ahmed 1998, p. 99.
  33. ↑ R. P. Bhargava, The Chamber of Princes (Northern Book Centre, 1991) p. 313
  34. ↑ Cheema & Riemer 1990, p. 60.
  35. ↑ Sheikh 2018.
  36. ↑ "Baloch `independence`". Dawn. 13 August 2009. Retrieved 1 June 2026. ON the so-called 'Kalat Independence Day' on Aug 11, Mir Suleman Dawood, grandson of the last ruler of Kalat, announced the creation of a council of Baloch separatist elements in Pakistan and Iran who will press for the formation of an 'independent Balochistan'.
  37. ↑ Talpur, Mir Mohammad Ali. "The Rise of Baloch Nationalism and Resistance – II – Pakistan Monthly Review". Retrieved 1 June 2026. On August 4, 1947, a tripartite agreement was signed between Pakistan, the British and Balochistan called The Standstill Agreement in which the sovereign status of Balochistan was accepted. The Khan declared Balochistan independent on August 11, 1947, three days before the independence of Pakistan.
  38. 1 2 Siddiqi 2012, p. 58–62.
  39. ↑ Harrison 1981, p. 24.
  40. ↑ Amirali 2015, pp. 22–23.
  41. 1 2 3 Saiyid 2006.
  42. ↑ Sheikh 2018, p. 80.
  43. ↑ Breseeg 2004, p. 100.
  44. ↑ Elfenbein 1988.
  45. ↑ "Balochi language History, Origin, & Varieties". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 June 2026.
  46. ↑ Whitaker 1951, p. 754.
  47. ↑ IDSA News Review on South Asia/Indian Ocean. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. 1987.
  48. ↑ "Census of India 1901. Vol. 5A, Baluchistan. Pt. 2, Imperial tables". 1901. p. 5. JSTOR saoa.crl.25352844. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Census of India 1911. Vol. 4, Baluchistan : pt. 1, Report; pt. 2, Tables". 1911. p. 11. JSTOR saoa.crl.25393764. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Census of India 1921. Vol. 4, Baluchistan : part I, Report; part II, Tables". 1921. p. 165. JSTOR saoa.crl.25394124. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  51. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Census of India 1931. Vol. 4, Baluchistan. Pts. 1 & 2, Report [and] Imperial and provincial tables". 1931. p. 390. JSTOR saoa.crl.25797115. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  52. 1 2 3 4 5 India Census Commissioner (1941). "Census of India, 1941. Vol. 14, Baluchistan". p. 17. JSTOR saoa.crl.28215993. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  53. ↑ Siddiqi 2012, p. 62.

Bibliography

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