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Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives

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Voiceless alveolar and dental plosives (or stops) are a type of consonantal sound used in almost all spoken languages. The alveolar is familiar to English-speakers as the ⟨t⟩ sound in stick.

Voiceless alveolar plosive
t
IPA number103
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity (decimal)t
Unicode (hex)U+0074
X-SAMPAt
Braille⠞ (braille pattern dots-2345)
Voiceless dental plosive
t̪
IPA number103 408
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity (decimal)t​̪
Unicode (hex)U+0074 U+032A
X-SAMPAt_d
Braille⠞ (braille pattern dots-2345) ⠠ (braille pattern dots-6) ⠹ (braille pattern dots-1456)

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiceless dental, alveolar, and postalveolar plosives is ⟨t⟩. The voiceless dental plosive can be distinguished with the underbridge diacritic ⟨t̪⟩, and the postalveolar with a retraction line, ⟨t̠⟩. The extIPA also has a double underline diacritic which can be used to explicitly specify an alveolar pronunciation, ⟨t͇⟩.

The [t] sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically.[1] Most languages have at least a plain [t], and some distinguish more than one variety. Some languages without a [t] are colloquial Samoan (which also lacks an [n]), Abau, and Nǁng of South Africa.[citation needed]

There are only a few languages which distinguish dental and alveolar stops (or often more precisely laminal and apical alveolar stops), including Kota, Toda, Venda and many Australian Aboriginal languages; certain varieties of Hiberno-English also distinguish them (with dental [t̪] being the local realization of the Standard English phoneme /θ/ spelled ⟨th⟩).

Features

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t̪
t
Sagittal sections of voiceless dental and alveolar plosives

Features of a voiceless alveolar stop:

  • Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no nasal outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely, and the consonant is a plosive.
  • There are three specific variants of [t]:
    • Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
    • Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
    • Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
  • It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
  • It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

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Dental or denti-alveolar

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Unless otherwise specified, the examples in this table are laminal denti-alveolar.

Occurrence of [t̪] in various languages
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Aleut[2]tiistax̂[t̪iːstaχ]'dough'
ArmenianEastern[3]տուն[t̪un]ⓘ'house'
Assyrian Neo-Aramaicܬܠܬ̱ܐ/ţla[t̪lɑ]'three'
Bashkirдүрт/dürt[dʏʷrt]ⓘ'four'
Belarusian[4]стагоддзе[s̪t̪äˈɣod̪d̪͡z̪ʲe]'century'See Belarusian phonology
Basquetoki[t̪oki]'place'See Basque phonology
Bengaliতুমি[t̪umi]'you'contrasts with aspirated form. See Bengali phonology
Catalan[5]terra[ˈt̪ɛrə]'land'See Catalan phonology
Chuvashут[ut]'horse'
Czechtoto[ˈt̪ot̪o]ⓘ'this'[6] See Czech phonology
Dinka[7]mɛth[mɛ̀t̪]'child'contrasts with alveolar /t/.
DutchBelgiantaal[t̪aːl̪]'language'
EnglishDublin[8]thin[t̪ʰɪn]'thin'May be pronounced instead as [t͡θ]. See Th-stopping.
IndianCorresponds to [θ].[8] See Th-stopping.
Southern Irish[9]
Ulster[10]train[t̪ɹeːn]'train'Allophone of /t/ before /r/, in free variation with an alveolar stop.
Finnishtutti[ˈt̪ut̪ːi]'pacifier'See Finnish phonology
French[11]tordu[t̪ɔʁd̪y]'crooked'See French phonology
Hakka[12]他/ta3[t̪ʰa˧]'he/she'contrasts with an unaspirated form.
Hindustani[13]Hindiतीन/tīn[t̪iːn]'three'Contrasts with aspirated form (⟨थ⟩ in Hindi, ⟨تھ⟩ in Urdu). See Hindustani phonology
Urduتین/tīn
HmongWhite Hmong𖬆𖬰𖬧𖬵 / tub[t̪u˦]'son', 'boy' or 'male name'
Indonesian[14]tabir[t̪äbɪr]'curtain'most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨t⟩.
Italian[15]tale[ˈt̪ale]'such'See Italian phonology
Japanese[16]特別/tokubetsu[t̪o̞kɯ̟ᵝbe̞t͡sɨᵝ]'special'See Japanese phonology
Kashubian[17]ptôch[ptɞx]'bird'
Kazakhтұз[t̪us̪]'salt'
Kyrgyz[18]туз[t̪us̪]'salt'
Latvian[19]tabula[ˈt̪äbulä]'table'See Latvian phonology
Malayalamകാത്ത്[kaːt̪ːɨ̆]'waiting'Contrasts /t̪ t ʈ d̪ ɖ/. See Malayalam phonology
Mapudungun[20]füṯa[ˈfɘt̪ɜ]'husband'Interdental.[20]
Marathiतबला[t̪əbˈlaː]'tabla'contrasts with aspirated form. See Marathi phonology
MinangkabauPadangtuo[t̪u.o̞]'old'
Nepaliताली[t̪äli]'clapping'Contrasts with aspirated form. See Nepali phonology
Nunggubuyu[21]darag[t̪aɾaɡ]'whiskers'
Odiaତାରା/tara[t̪ärä]'star'contrasts with aspirated form.
Pazeh[22][mut̪apɛt̪aˈpɛh]'keep clapping'Dental.
Polish[23]tom[t̪ɔm]ⓘ'volume'See Polish phonology
Portuguese[24]Many dialectsmontanha[mõˈt̪ɐɲɐ]'mountain'Likely to have allophones among native speakers, as it may affricate to [tʃ], [tɕ] and/or [ts] in certain environments. See Portuguese phonology
Punjabiਤੇਲ/تیل[t̪eːl]'oil'
Russian[25]толстый[ˈt̪ʷo̞ɫ̪s̪t̪ɨ̞j]'fat'See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic[26]taigh[t̪ʰɤj]'house'Apical dental. Contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated forms.
Serbo-Croatian[27]туга/tuga[t̪ǔːgä]'sorrow'See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Sinhalaඅත[at̪ə]'hand'
Slovene[28]tip[ˈt̪îːp]'type'See Slovene phonology
Slovaktoto[ˈt̪ot̪o]'this'See Slovak phonology
Somalimatag[mat̪ag]'vomit'Dentalization of alveolar plosive.
Spanish[29]tango[ˈt̪ãŋɡo̞]'tango'See Spanish phonology
Swedish[30]tåg[ˈt̪ʰoːɡ]'train'See Swedish phonology
Tamilதாய்[t̪apːu]'mother (of self)'See Tamil phonology
Teluguతప్పు[t̪apːu]'wrong'Contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated forms.
Turkishat[ät̪]'horse'See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian[31][32]брат[brɑt̪]ⓘ'brother'See Ukrainian phonology
Uzbek[33][example needed]–Slightly aspirated before vowels.[33]
Vietnamese[34]tuần[t̪wən˨˩]'week'contrasts with aspirated form. See Vietnamese phonology
ZapotecTilquiapan[35]tant[t̪ant̪]'so much'

Alveolar

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Occurrence of [t] in various languages
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Abkhazиҭабуп[jtʰabwpʼ]ⓘ'thank you'See Abkhaz phonology
Adygheтфы[tfə]ⓘ'five'
Afrikaans[36]tafelⓘ'pot'
ArabicEgyptianتوكة/tōka[ˈtoːkæ]'barrette'See Egyptian Arabic phonology
Assyrianܒܝܬܐ/bèta[beːta]'house'Most speakers. In the Tyari, Barwari and Southern dialects θ is used.
Bengali গাধাটি [gɐd̪ʱɐti] 'the donkey' True alveolar in some eastern dialects. But all Bengali speakers allophone of /t/ after and before denti-alveolar and postalveolar /t̪, t̪ʰ, d̪, d̪ʱ, tʃ, tʃʰ, dʒ, dʒʱ, ʃ/. See Bengali phonology
Cantonese跌/dit[ti:t̚˧]'fall' (v.)See Cantonese Phonology
鐵/鉄/tit[tʰi:t̚˧]'iron'
Chechenтарсал/tarsal[tɑːrsəl]'squirrel'
DanishStandard[37]dåse[ˈtɔ̽ːsə]'can' (n.)Usually transcribed in IPA with ⟨d̥⟩ or ⟨d⟩. Contrasts with the affricate [t͡s] or aspirated stop [tʰ] (depending on the dialect), which are usually transcribed in IPA with ⟨tˢ⟩ or ⟨t⟩.[38] See Danish phonology
Dutch[39]taal[taːɫ]'language'See Dutch phonology
EnglishMost speakerstick[tʰɪk]ⓘ'tick'See English phonology
New York[40]Varies between apical and laminal, with the latter being predominant.[40]
Hebrewתמונה[tmuˈna]'image'see Modern Hebrew phonology
Hungarian[41]tutaj[ˈtutɒj]'raft'See Hungarian phonology
IndonesianMost speakerstabir[täbɪr]'curtain'Commonly [t̪] by other speakers.
Kabardianтхуы[txʷə]ⓘ'five'
Khmerតែ/tê[tae]'tea'See Khmer phonology
Korean대숲/daesup[tɛsup̚]'bamboo forest'See Korean phonology
KurdishNortherntu[tʰʊ]'you'See Kurdish phonology
Centralتەوێڵ[tʰəweːɫ]'forehead'
Southernتێوڵ[tʰeːwɨɫ]
Luxembourgish[42]dënn[tən]'thin'Less often voiced [d]. It is usually transcribed /d/, and it contrasts with voiceless aspirated form, which is usually transcribed /t/.[42] See Luxembourgish phonology
Malayalamകാറ്റ്[kaːtːɨ̆]'wind'Contrasts /t̪ t ʈ d̪ ɖ/. See Malayalam phonology
Maltesetassew[tasˈsew]'true'
Mandarin地/dì[ti˥˩]'ground'See Mandarin Phonology
梯/tī[tʰi˥˥]'ladder/stairs'
Mapudungun[20]füta[ˈfɘtɜ]'elderly'
Nunggubuyu[21]darawa[taɾawa]'greedy'
Nuosu[which?]ꄉ/da[ta˧]'place'Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms
Portuguese[43]Some dialectstroço[ˈtɾɔsu]'thing' (pejorative)Allophone before alveolar /ɾ/. In other dialects /ɾ/ takes a denti-alveolar allophone instead. See Portuguese phonology
ScotsMost dialectstak[täk]'take'Traditionally apical. Can be aspirated word-initially in more English-influenced varieties.
Tagalogmatamis[mɐtɐˈmis]'sweet'See Tagalog phonology
Thaiตา/ta[taː˧]'eye'Contrasts with an aspirated form.
West Frisiantosk[ˈtosk]'tooth'See West Frisian phonology

Postalveolar

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Voiceless postalveolar plosive
t̠
Audio sample
Occurrence of [t̠]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Acehnese teubèe [t̠ɯ.ˈbɛə̯] 'sugarcane' See Acehnese phonology
Bengali[44]টাকা[t̠aka]'taka'Apical postalveolar;[44] contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See Bengali phonology
Hindustani[45][46] टोपी/ ٹوپی[t̠oːpiː]'hat'Apical postalveolar
Nepali टोली [t̠oli] 'team' Apical postalveolar; contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See Nepali phonology
Odiaଟଗର / ṭagara[t̠ɔgɔrɔ]'crepe jasmine'Apical postalveolar; contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms.
Yeledêê[t̠əː]'tongue'Contrasts /t̪ t̪͡p t̪ʲ t̠ t̠͡p t̠ʲ/.

Variable

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Occurrence of a voiceless plosive variable between alveolar and dental positions
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ArabicModern Standardتين‎/tīn[tiːn]'fig'Laminal denti-alveolar or alveolar, depending on the speaker's native dialect. See Arabic phonology
EnglishBroad South African[47]talk[toːk]'talk'Laminal denti-alveolar for some speakers, alveolar for other speakers.[47][48][49]
Scottish[48][tʰɔk]
Welsh[49][tʰɒːk]
GermanStandard[50]Tochter[ˈtɔxtɐ]'daughter'Varies between laminal denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.[50] See Standard German phonology
Greek[51]τρία tria[ˈtɾiä]'three'Varies between dental, laminal denti-alveolar and alveolar, depending on the environment.[51] See Modern Greek phonology
Malayتڠکڤ/tangkap[t̪äŋ.käp̚]'catch'More commonly dental. Often unreleased in syllable codas. See Malay phonology
NorwegianUrban East[52]dans[t̻ɑns]'dance'Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and laminal alveolar. It is usually transcribed /d/. It may be partially voiced [d̥], and it contrasts with voiceless aspirated form, which is usually transcribed /t/.[52] See Norwegian phonology
Persian[53]توت[t̪ʰuːt̪ʰ]'berry'Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar.[53] See Persian phonology
Slovak[54][55]to[t̻ɔ̝]'that'Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and laminal alveolar.[54][55] See Slovak phonology
Toki Pona toki [toki] 'language' Can be aspirated.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Liberman et al. (1967), p. ?.
  2. ↑ Ladefoged (2005), p. 165.
  3. ↑ Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 17.
  4. ↑ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
  5. ↑ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 53.
  6. ↑ Skarnitzl, Radek (February 2015). "Asymmetry in the Czech Alveolar Stops: An EPG Study". Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
  7. ↑ Remijsen & Manyang (2009), pp. 115 and 121.
  8. 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 302.
  9. ↑ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 24.
  10. ↑ "Week 18 (ii). Northern Ireland" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-12. Retrieved 2015-04-26.
  11. ↑ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
  12. ↑ Lee & Zee (2009), p. 109.
  13. ↑ Ladefoged (2005), p. 141.
  14. ↑ Soderberg & Olson (2008), p. 210.
  15. ↑ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
  16. ↑ Okada (1999), p. 117.
  17. ↑ Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
  18. ↑ Kara (2003), p. 11.
  19. ↑ Nau (1998), p. 6.
  20. 1 2 3 Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 88–89.
  21. 1 2 Ladefoged (2005), p. 158.
  22. ↑ Blust (1999), p. 330.
  23. ↑ Jassem (2003), p. 103.
  24. ↑ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  25. ↑ Jones & Ward (1969), p. 99.
  26. ↑ Bauer, Michael. Blas na Gàidhlig: The Practical Guide to Gaelic Pronunciation. Glasgow: Akerbeltz, 2011.
  27. ↑ Landau et al. (1999), p. 66.
  28. ↑ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
  29. ↑ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
  30. ↑ Engstrand (1999), p. 141.
  31. ↑ S. Buk; J. Mačutek; A. Rovenchak (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16: 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198.
  32. ↑ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
  33. 1 2 Sjoberg (1963), p. 10.
  34. ↑ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
  35. ↑ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
  36. ↑ Donaldson (1993).
  37. ↑ Basbøll (2005), p. 61.
  38. ↑ Grønnum (2005), p. 120.
  39. ↑ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 45.
  40. 1 2 Wells (1982), p. 515.
  41. ↑ Szende (1994), p. 91.
  42. 1 2 Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 67–68.
  43. ↑ Palatalization in Brazilian Portuguese revisited Archived 2014-04-07 at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese)
  44. 1 2 Mazumdar (2000:57)
  45. ↑ Ladefoged (2005:141)
  46. ↑ Tiwari (2004:?)
  47. 1 2 Lass (2002), p. 120.
  48. 1 2 Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 4.
  49. 1 2 Wells (1982), p. 388.
  50. 1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 47.
  51. 1 2 Arvaniti (2007), p. 10.
  52. 1 2 Kristoffersen (2000), p. 22.
  53. 1 2 Mahootian (2002:287–289)
  54. 1 2 Kráľ (1988), p. 72.
  55. 1 2 Pavlík (2004), pp. 98–99.

References

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